mm 


tifo 


mm!. 


IBIIlT 

RARY 

BtSITY  Of 

IPOtNIA 


INCES 


OR, 


INTO   SOME   OF  THE 


GEOLOGICAL  PHENOMENA 


TO    BE    FOUND    IN 


TARIOUS  PARTS  OF  AMERICA,  AND  ELSEWHERE. 


BY  HORACE  H.  HAYDEN,  ESQjMJ>. 

MEMBER   OF  THE  JJWERir.i.V  GEOLOGICAL  SOC/ETF....HO.VOBJBF  MEMBER  OF  THE  3TEJDIC.Ui 
SOC1ETF  OF  .W.iHrJ-l.VI)....a.VB   OF  THE    JTESTEB.V  MUSEUM  SOCIETT,  J.VJ»   COBR£fi- 
.Y£.YBEB  OF  THE  JCJJ>*«r  Oi1  SCIS.VCJB  4T  HUZrfDf  UH2J. 


Je  sais  qtie  de  uos  jours  Ie»  conjectures,  les  hypotheses  sont  proscritet  de  1'etude  de  la  natuise, 
et  qu'on  les  regarde  corarae  plus  propres  4  retarder  la  marche  de  la  science  qu  a  lui  faire  faire  des 
progr^s  ;  et  rien  n'est  plus  vrai  en  general ;  mais  quand  ees  conjectures  sont  fondles  sur  des  ana- 
logies et  sur  des  rapprochemens  de  fails,  et  de  grands  fails  gedogiques,  je  ne  pense  nulkment 
quVlks  soitnt  inutiles  et  qu'on  doive  les  proscrire.  Eiles  etendent  las  vue«  de  I'observtteur, 
et  lui  font  reniarqucr  des  rapports  qui  lui  auroiem  echappe. fatrin. 


BALTIMORE : 

PRINTED  BY  J.  ROBINSON,  FOR  THE  AUTHOR, 

J)  SOLI)  BY  THE  PRINCIPAL  BOOKSELLKHS  IIS  BALTIMORE;  MATHEW  CAIiET  ANT) 
SON,  PHILADELPHIA  ;  JAMES  EAS TBURN,  JfEW-TORK  ;  WELLS  AK1)  LILLT,  BOS- 
TU>  ;  E.  T.  HACHC8,  ALBANY;  J.  PARKER,  TROY  ;  GIDKOX  DAVIS,  GEORGETOWN  ; 
DAVIS  AND  FORCE,  WASHIXOTOX  CITY;  C.  UALX,  NORFOLK. 

1820. 


I 

EARTO 

SCIENCES 


DISTRICT  OF  MARYLAND,  ss. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  That  on  the  8th  day  of  November,   in  the  Forty- 
fifth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  Horace 
4*1********  H.  Hayden  of  the   said  District,  hath  deposited  in  this  Office  the  title  of 
fSKAL.*  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  proprietor  in  the  words  following, 
***********  to  wit: 

"  Geological  Essays ;  or,  an  Inquiry  into  some  of  the  Geological  Phenomena  to 
be  found  in  "various  parts  of  America,  and  elsewhere. — By  Horace  H.  Hayden,  Esq. 
Member  of  the  American  Geological  Society — Honorary  Member  of  the  Medical 
Society  of  Maryland — and  of  the  Western  Museum  Society,  and  Corresponding 
Member  oi  the  Academy  of  Science  at  Philadelphia. 

Je  sais  que  de  nos  jours  les  conjectures,  les  hypotheses  sont  proscrites  de  1'etude  de  la  nature, 
et  qu'on  les  regarde  commeplus  propres  a  retard'-r  la  marche  tie  la  science  qu  &  lu'i  faire  fairedes 
progr£s ;  et  rifn  u'est  plus  vrai  en  general  ;  mais  quand  ces  conjectures  sont  fondees  sur  des  ana- 
logics  et  sur  des  rapprochemens  de  fails,  et  de  grands  faits  geulogiques,  je  ne  pense  nullement 
qu'.lles  soient  inutiles  et  qu'on  doive  les  proscrire.  Ellcs  etendent  les  vues  de  1'obsenateur, 
et  lui  font  remarquer  des  rapports  qui  lui  auroient  £el>appe. Pairing 

In  conformity  to  an  act  01  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "  An 
acl  for*  *h4  Encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts, 
and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein 
mentioned."  And  also  to  the  act,  entitled,  "  An  act  supplementary  to  an  act, 
entitled,  "  An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of 
maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during 
the  times  thei-ein  mentioned,"  and  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of 
designing,  engraving,  and  etching  historical  and  other  prints." 

PHILIP  MOORE, 
Clerk  of  the  District  of  Maryland, 


Mzs 


SCIEBCR 
U&RARY 


DEDICATION. 

TO    THE 

HONOURABLE  THOMAS  COOPER,  Esq. 
PHILADELPHIA. 

SIR, 

As  the  promoter  of  general  science,  and  as  a  friend 
from  whom  repeated  marks  of  favour  and  confidence  have 
been  received,  this  imperfect  work  on  the  Geological  phe- 
nomena of  this,  and  some  other  countries,  is,  with  senti* 
ments  of  gratitude,  respectfully  inscribed, 
by  your  much  obliged, 

and  very  obed't  servant, 

H.  H.  HAYDEN. 
Baltimore,  October  13th,   1820. 


388 


\ 


PREFACE. 


THE  various  hints  that  have  been  offered,  by  different  writers, 
on  the  Geological  phenomena,  or  certain  physical  changes, 
that  appear  to  have  taken  place  in  other  countries,  have  long 
since  engaged  the  attention  of  the  author,  and  led  him  to  ex- 
amine some  of  the  geological  features  of  our  own  country, 
with  a  view  to  their  origin,  and  the  probable  causes,  by  which 
they  have  been  produced. 

Among  those,  the  alluvial  districts  upon  the  margins  of  most 
of  the  rivers,  in  the  United  States,  and  the  great  alluvial  re- 
gion, bordering  on  the  Atlantic  ocean,  appeared  the  most  inte- 
resting, and  most  worthy  of  a  critical  examination. 

On  these  subjects,  and  others,  having  an  intimate  relation 
thereto,  a  considerable  .portion  of  the  present  work  was  writ- 
ten ;  though  not  with  the  most  distant  idea,  that  it  would  ever 
appear  before  the  publick  in  its  present  form. 

fThis  imperfect  sketch,  however,  was,  in  1817,  submitted 
to  the  perusal  of  several  of  his  literary  friends,  among  whom 
was  Professor  Silliman.  It  was  also  read  to  Dr.  S.  L. 
.Mitchell,  of  New- York. 

From  the  favourable  terms  in  which  it  was  spoken  of,  and 
the  friendly  encouragement  held  out,  for  its  publication,  he 
was  induced  to  relinquish  the  intention  of  publishing  it  in 
detached  anonymous  sketches ;  to  enlarge  and  extend  the  sub- 
ject by  a  more  circumstantial  investigation  of  facts,  and  to 
offer  it  to  the  publick  in  its  present  shape. 


VI  PREFACE. 

Tn  forming  this  conclusion,  he  was  not  insensible  of  the 
obligations,  which  he  has  assumed,  nor  of  the  essential  pre- 
requisites to  an  undertaking  so  arduous,  and  so  important  in 
its  kind.  Among  the  latter  is  the  particular  knowledge,  that 
ought  to  be  obtained  of  all  local  facts,  that  have  any  bearing 
or  relation  to  the  subject  under  consideration. 

To  acquire  this,  no  pains  have  been  spared.  As  early  as 
the  year  1814,  he  endeavoured  to  interest  and  engage  the  at- 
tention, of  a  number  of  resident  and  travelling  gentlemen, 
of  science  and  information,  in  collecting  and  communicat- 
ing such  facts,  as  were  calculated  to  assist  in  the  investiga- 
tion of  this  new  and  interesting  subject. 

In  this,  however,  he  was  unsuccessful ;  since,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  friendly  communications  of  Professors  C  leave- 
land,  and  Cooper,  not  the  scrip  of  a  pen  lias  been  received 
in  answer  to  the  queries  proposed,  and  which  are  contained 
in  the  Agenda,  attached  to  this  work. 

Being  thus  situated,  no  other  alternative  was  left,  but  to 
trust  to  his  own  individual  observations  and  exertions,  and  to 
the  occasional  hints  and  incidental  remarks  of  historians  and 
travellers  who  have  visited,  and  written  upon  the  different  sec- 
tions of  this  continent ;  or  to  relinquish  a  subject,  vast  in  its 
extent,  important  in  its  nature,  and  replete  with  that  peculiar 
kind  of  interest,  which  cannot  fail  to  entertain,  if  not  instruct. 

Under  such  circumstances,  and  under  disadvantages  rtot 
within  the  limits  of  control,  has  the  present  work  been 
written. 

In  presenting  it  to  the  publick,  he  has  not  the  temerity  to 
presume,  nor  vanity  to  believe,  that  it  is  calculated  to  please 
every  one ;  or  that  it  is  free  from  errours.  He  is  sensible 
of  its  imperfections,  and  particularly  so,  of  the  want  of  sys- 
tem, or  that  kind  of  order  in  the  arrangement  of  the  materials, 
which  the  subject  strictly  requires.  Bnt  he  trusts  that  these 


PREFACE.  \  il 

will  be  overlooked,  when  it  is  considered,  that  this  is  not  tfo 
voluntary  offering  of  a  candidate  for  literary  fame;  nor  is  it 
the  offspring  of  a  visionary  whim,  ushered  into  the  world 
from  sinister  motives,  or  to  answer  pecuniary  ends. 

The  principal  and  only  motive  by  which  he  has  been  ac- 
tuated, is  the  wish  to  interest  and  invite  the  attention  of 
Geologists,  naturalists,  and  scientifick  men  of  every  deno- 
mination, to  the  great  and  important  physical  changes,  that 
appear  to  have  taken  place  upon  and  near  the  surface  of  the 
I'arth,  in  various,  parts  of  the  world,  and  more  particular- 
ly in  our  own  country;  and  also  to  the  numerous  and  in- 
king facts,  that  seem  to  have,  not  only  a  direct  rela- 
tion to,  but  an  intimate  connexion  with  those  changes ;  and 
this  with  the  view  of  enabling  us  to  form,  something  like, 
correct  ideas  of  the  causes  and  operations,  by  which  they 
were  produced ;  and  possibly  too,  of  the  times  at  which  they 
took  place. 

Among  the  most  prominent  of  these  changes,  (and  which 
may  be  considered,  as  being  one  of  the  most  interesting  fea- 
tures, in  the  Geology  of  this  country,)  is  the  alluvial  region 
skirting  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

It  is  this  which  constitutes  the  principal  subject  of  the  pre- 
sent work,  and  in  the  examination  of  which,  he  has  endea- 
voured to  adduce  facts  sufficiently  numerous  and  strong,  to 
prove  that  the  whole  region,  with  the  attendant  phenomena,  is 
the  result  of  the  operation  of  currents,  that  flowed  from  the 
north  east  to  the  south  west ;  or  from  the  north  to  the  south 
over  the  whole  continent  of  America. 

Should  these  facts  or  proofs,  however,  be  not  sufficient,  it  is 
10  be  hoped,  that  when  the  subject  has  received  that  attention, 
which  it  merits,  and  the  numerous  remaining  proofs,  that  are 
scattered  over  every  portion  of  the  continent,  are  collected 
and  embodied,  they  will  be  sufficient,  ki  the  hands  of  some 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

abler  pen,  to  establish  the  facts  upon  the  immutable  prin- 
ciples of  truth,  and  beyond  the  fear  of  contradiction. 

In  the  course  of  this  essay  on  alluvial  formations,  he  has 
occasionally  adverted  to  circumstances  important  in  them- 
selves, either  separate,  or  as  connected  with  the  general  sub- 
ject; and  which  seemed  to  require  an  immediate  examina- 
tion and  discussion. 

This,  however,  could  not  be  done,  consistently  with  the 
plan  of  the  work,  as  it  would  unavoidably  occasion  too 
many  and  too  frequent  digressions,  which  might  be  consider- 
ed as  unnecessary  interruptions,  rendering  the  whole  tedious 
and  uninteresting. 

To  avoid  this,  and  to  give  a  more  ample  view  of  each 
topick,  he  has,  with  slight  references,  thrown  them  into 
distinct  chapters,  in  which  each  subject  is  separately  ex- 
amined. 

If,  in  these,  he  has  advanced  opinions  at  variance  with 
those  generally  inculcated,  he  is  conscious  of  having  done 
it,  not  from  a  spirit  of  opposition,  or  a  fondness  for  inno- 
vation, but  from  a  disposition  to  promote  the  cause  of  truth, 
which,  from  the  nature  of  the  principles  that  he  has  assum- 
ed, and  the  facts  which  he  has  adduced,  will  admit  of  no 
other  possible  construction. 

Should  they  produce  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  a  corres- 
ponding conviction — should  they  tend  to  elicit  one  ray  of 
light  in  the  cause  of  science,  all  the  motives  will  be  grati- 
fied, and  all  the  purposes  answered,  that  were  ever  antici- 
pated by  the 

AUTHOR. 


GEOLOGICAL  ESSAYS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  structure  of  the  globe  which  we  inhabit,  and  the 
infinitely  varied  features,  either  moral  or  physical, 
which  are  presented  to  human  view  in  almost  every 
district  upon  its  surface,  afford  a  subject  for  contem- 
plation, that  far  transcends  the  feeble  capacity  of  man 
perfectly  to  comprehend ;  much  less  is  he  able  to  de- 
lineate, with  truth  and  correctness,  the  innumerable 
shades  which  are  characteristick  or  indicative  of  some 
great  and  important  change  or  operation,  which  has 
been  wrought  upon  this  stupendous  fabrick. 

Nevertheless^  many  have  entered,  as  Geologists,  with 
a  becoming  zeal,  upon  the  arduous  task,  and  with  no 
inconsiderable  degree  of  success,  as  well  as  credit  to 
themselves.  They  have,  regardless  of  the  Mosaic 
account  of  the  creation  of  this  earth,  endeavoured, 
from  various  phenomena,  to  account  for  its  origin, 
formation,  and  the  successive  changes  which  it  has 
undergone  through  an  immense  period  of  passed  ages, 
upon  principles  peculiar  to  their  views  of  the  subject. 

How  far  their  opinions  are  correct,  it  is  not  the 
object  of  this  work  to  determine.  Nevertheless,  it 
may  not  be  amiss  to  observe,  (viewing  the  Hutto- 
nian  theory  as  inadmissible,)  that  however  plausible 
the  Neptunian  doctrines  may  appear,  and  however 
numerous  the  facts  which  not  only  support  the  theory, 
but  seem  to  stamp  with  the  seal  of  truth  the  entire 


system ;  yet  there  are  facts  remaining  which  consti- 
tute insuperable  obstacles  to  the  complete  establish- 
ment of  this  plan,  as  correct  and  unexceptionable. 
Such  are  the  immense  beds  or  quarries  of  the  muriate 
of  soda ;  the  formation  of  the  native  metals,  &c.  &c. 
Independently  of  which  there  are  other  circumstances 
or  geological  facts,  that  frequently  occur,  and  which  are 
eagerly  embraced  in  support  of  the  Neptunian  theory ; 
but  they  are  in  many,  if  not  in  most  cases,  entirely 
irrelative  having  but  little  or  no  bearing  or  relation 
with  the  actual  formation  of  this  globe.  They  consti- 
tute certain  geognostic  features  or  characters,  that  not 
only  favour,  but  strongly  support  the  Neptunian  theo- 
ry ;  nevertheless,  they  are,  as  I  shall  endeavour  to 
prove  hereafter,  almost,  if  not  entirely  accidental. 

In  a  geological  investigation,  whether  with  a  view 
to  the  original  formation  of  the  globe,  or  to  the  great 
and  important  changes  it  has  undergone  subsequently 
to  its  original  formation,  perhaps  no  country  upon  its 
surface  affords  a  more  suitable  field  for  scientifick  re- 
search, or  more  ample  opportunities,  and  numerous 
facts  from  which  to  form  correct  ideas  on  these  two 
points,  than  the  continent  of  North  America. 

In  its  various  parts  are  exhibited  all  the  different 
formations,  that  are  mentioned  by  geologists  in  sup- 
port of  the  Neptunian  theory  :  such  as  primitive  transi- 
tion, secondary,  or  floetz,  &c.  At  the  same  time  few 
or  no  indications  occur  that  can  favour  in  the  least  pos* 
sible  degree,  the  Huttonian  theory  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
that  any  known  part  within  the  present  limits  of  the 


United  States,  can  owe  its  origin  to  the  "Intestinal 
motion"  of  Patrin,  or  volcanick  agency  ;*  as  not  an  in- 
dication of  the  kind,  I  believe,  has  ever  been  found 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

In  tracing  up,  in  their  due  order,  all  the  differ- 
ent formations,  and  contemplating  the  varied  features 
that  are  presented  to  view,t  we  cannot  hesitate  long 
in  saying,  that  great  and  important  changes  have  been 
wrought,  in,  and  upon  its  surface,  long  since  the  com- 
pletion of  this  globe  ;  consequently  they  are  unconnect- 
ed, and  can  have  no  relation  with  its  original  formation. J 

These  changes  are  various  ;  but  by  what  physical 
means  they  have  been  accomplished,  no  adequate  so- 
lution has,  as  yet,  been  given.  The  means  may  have  va- 
ried, or  have  originated  from  different  sources,  or  may 
have  depended  on  different  causes  ;  but  no  one  affords 
so  strong  grounds  for  presumption,  or,  in  fact,  such  po- 
sitive evidence  in  its  favour,  as  the  idea  of  a  general 
current  having  prevailed^  over  the  whole  of  this  conti* 
nent.  and,  perhaps,  over  every  other,  by  which  those 
changes  were  produced. 

In  support  of  this  opinion,  this  continent  affords  the 
most  ample  testimony,  not  only  of  the  prevalence  of 
such  a  current,  but  that  it  flowed  from  the  north  east 
to  the  south  west.  Among  these  proofs,  1  shall  first 
take  into  view  the  district,  which  is,  no  doubt,  strictly 
called  alluvial,  and  which  lies  upon  the  borders  of  the 

*  See  Chapter  6th.  t  See  Chapter  7th. 

\  See  Phillips's  outline  of  Geology,  page  70. 
§  See  Chapter  8th. 


Atlantic  ocean,  extending  from  the  state  of  Maine,  to 
the  bottom  of  the  bay  of  Mexico. 

I  am  aware  that  much  has  been  said  on  the  subject 
of  currents,  by  various  authors,  and  of  the  supposed 
results  in  a  variety  of  instances  ;  but  I  know  of  no  one 
that  has,  in  contemplating  these  results,  endeavoured 
to  trace  them  to  their  source,  or  to  explain  the  cause  of 
the  currents  which  produced  them.  It  is  a  subject 
which,  if  properly  studied,  may  lead  to  a  satisfactory 
solution  of  these  phenomena. 

This  immense  alluvial  district  forms,  by  far,  the 
most  interesting  geological  trait,  that  is  presented  to 
view,  perhaps,  on  the  continent  of  North  America, 
on  the  subject  of  which  there  exists  a  diversity  of 
opinions. 

According  to  Mr.  McClure's  geological  chart,  it 
commences  at  Long  Island,  and  stretching  along  upon 
the  coast,  increases  in  breadth  as  we  advance  towards 
its  sputhern  extremity,  and  is,  in  some  parts,  nearly 
two  hundred  miles  in  breadth. 

On  this  important  subject  no  one  has,  as  yet,  that  I 
know  of.  attempted  a  correct  topographical  or  geologi- 
cal description.  Nevertheless  partial  accounts  have 
been  given  by  several,  and  opinions  advanced  with  a 
view  to  account  for  its  origin,  and,  (as  is  supposed,) 
gradual  increase. 

These  opinions  it  becomes  necessary  for  me  to  notice, 
before  I  proceed  to  offer  an  explanation  of  my  own,  on 
so  interesting  a  point. 


Mr.  La  Trobe,  in  a  communication  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  seems  to  intimate  that  the  allu- 
vial district  is  produced  in  part,  at  least,  by  the  sea ; 
for  he  observes  that  "  The  shore,  and  the  bed  of  the 
Atlantic  near  the  shore,  consist  of  fine  sand. — The 
daily  action  of  the  flood  tide,  carries  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  this  sand  above  high  water  mark,  which,  being 
dried  by  the  sun  and  air,  is  carried  further  inland  by 
the  winds." 

Mr.  La  Trobe  in  this  instance,  is  only  speaking  of 
the  "  sand  hills"  at  Cape  Henry  in  Virginia ;  but 
that  he  entertains  an  opinion  that  nearly  the  whole 
was  produced  in  a  similar  way,  we  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve from  the  following  remarks  in  a  note  in  the 
same  memoir,  viz.  «  I  speak  only  of  the  coast  of 
Virginia,  at  Cape  Henry ;  for  although  1  have  the 
best  reason  to  believe  that  the  same  natural  process  has 
produced  all  the  sand  banks,  islands,  and  sand  hills 
from  the  Delaware  to  Florida,  I  have  only  examined 
that  part  of  the  coast  which  is  the  subject  of  the 
present  memoir."* 

While  I  entertain  a  high  respect  for  the  opinions 
and  talents  of  Mr.  La  Trobe,  I  must  beg  leave  to 
observe,  that  although  "  the  shore  and  the  bed  of 
the  Atlantic  near  the  shore"  may  consist  of  fine  sand, 
it  is  well  known  that  at  a  little  distance,  and  from  that 
to  a  great  distance  from  the  shore,  at  least  within 
soundings,  the  bottom,  or  bed  of  the  ocean  is  com- 

*  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  4,  page  459. 


6 

posed  more  or  less  of  green  ooze,  or  mud.*  which  is 
inhabited  by  innumerable  little  shell-fish.  This  is  the 
case,  I  believe  with  few  exceptions,  from  Boston  chan- 
nel to  a  great  distance  to  the  southward  ;  consequently 
the  sand  could  not  have  been  derived  from  that  source 
to  have  formed  "  all  the  sand  banks,  sand  hills,  &c. 
from  the  Delaware  to  Florida." 

Independently  of  this,  there  are  numerous  other 
places  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  the  shores  are 
composed  of  a  most  beautiful  fine  white  sand,  and 
which  is  constantly  exposed  to,  and  washed  by  the 
raging  billows  of  the  ocean ;  yet  there  has  been  but 
little  or  no  alteration  in  the  shores  or  neighbourhood 
adjacent,  since  the  discovery  of  America ;  or  within 
the  memory  of  the  oldest  inhabitants  living  in  their 
vicinity.  Such  are  the  shores  of  Long  Island  from 
its  east  to  its  south  western  extremity,  and  from 
thence  to  the  Capes  of  Delaware  with  few  exceptions. 
Such  are  also  the  shores  of  the  main  land  from  Watch 
Hill,  at  or  near  Stonington,  Connecticut,  to  Hurl 
Gate?  with  few  exceptions.  Such  is  also  the  Island 
of  Anguilla,  and  the  beach  on  which  the  city  stands  at 
the  bottom  of  great  bay  in  the  Island  of  St.  Martins. 
These  are  both  immense  beds  of  fine  silicious  sand, 
constantly  exposed  to  the  operations  of  the  trade  winds 
and  hurricanes,  yet  no  visible  change  is  produced  in 
their  extent,  or  general  features,  except  that  violent 
winds  sometimes,  from  local  causes,  act  with  more 

*  See  Chapter  9. 


force  on  some  parts  than  on  others  ;  hence  the  sand  is 
raised  in  clouds,  carried,  and  deposited  in  a  part 
not  far  distant;  but  which,  from  a  similar  cause, 
will,  in  a  few  weeks  perhaps,  be  taken  up  and  brought 
back  again  ;  thus  shifting  from  place  to  place. 

There  are  numerous  places  in  the  world,  where  simi- 
lar circumstances  occur;  in  many  of  which  during  the 
prevalence  of  high  winds,  the  inhabitants  are  threaten- 
ed with  destruction.  Such  is  the  case  at  Norfolk,  in 
latitude  55°  N.  where  "  the  small  cottages  are  some- 
times totally  buried  under  sand  during  high  winds.'7* 

In  the  sixth  volume  of  the  transactions  of  the  Irish 
Academy,  an  account  is  given  of  the  encroachment  of 
sand  over  some  parts  of  Ireland.  Trees,  houses,  and 
even  villages  have  been  covered  or  surrounded  during 
the  last  century.  The  roofs  still  rising  above  the 
waste  attest  the  period  and  progress  of  desolation. 

Mr.  Bakewell,  in  his  introduction  to  Geology,  ob- 
serves, *•  The  loose  sands  of  Lybia  are  spreading 
over  the  plains  that  border  the  .Nile,  and  burying  the 
monuments  of  art  and  the  remembrances  of  former 
cultivation.  From  a  similar  cause  the  country  imme- 
diately round  Palmyra,  that  once  supplied  a  crowded 
population  with  food,  now  scarcely  aiTords  a  few  with- 
ered plants  to  the  camel  of  the  wandering  Arab."f 

Linnaeus  says,  "  The  Dutch  are  obliged  to  sow  the 
sea  mat-weed,  or  marrau,  (which  will  only  grow  on 

*  StilHngfleet'8  Tracts,  page  75. 
t  See  fiakeweil,  page  254. 


8 

pure  sand,)  to  prevent  the  neighbouring  parts  from 
being  overwhelmed  by  sand  "* 

So  that  although  material  changes  have  taken  place, 
and  are  constantly  taking  place,  and  the  buildings  at,  or 
about  Cape  Henry,  are  threatened  with  being  buried 
with  sand,  and  also  the  forests,  yet  it  does  not  follow 
that  this  change  or  increase  is  produced  by  the  sea. 
On  the  contrary,  a  circumstance  of  which  Mr  La 
Trobe  takes  notice  in  the  same  memoir,  inclines  one  to 
believe  that,  although  a  material  change  is  going  on  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  light  house  at  Cape  Henry, 
neither  this  increase  or  accumulation  of  sand,  nor  any 
part  of  the  alluvial  formation,  either  depended  on,  or 
was  occasioned  by  the  sea ;  for  Mr.  La  Trobe  says, 
the  swamps,  or  desert,  to  the  northward  and  west- 
ward of  the  light  house  are  overgrown  with  aquatick 
trees,  &c.  such  as  the  gum,  the  cypress,  the  red  ma- 
ple, (acerrubrum)  the  sycamore,  (or  plantanus  occi- 
dentalis)  and  also,  "  That  the  swamp,  with  its  trees, 
extended  to  the  sea  coast  perhaps  within  a  century,  ig 
very  evident  from  this  circumstance  :  between  the 
summit  of  the  sand  hills,  and  the  sea  shore,  and  more 
especially  on  the  Chesapeake  side,  the  undecayed, 
though  mostly  dead  bodies  of  trees  still  appear  in  great 
numbers.  Being  on  the  windward  side  of  the  sand 
hills  they  have  not  been  more  than  half  buried." 

Now,  if  the  islands,  sand  banks,  and  sand  hills,  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  have  been  formed  by  sand  washed 

*  See  Linn.  flor.  Lapp,  page  62. 


9 

up  by  the  sea  ;  or  if  such  a  change,  as  is  exhibited  at 
Cape  Henry,  could  have  been  effected  within  a  cen- 
tury, it  will  appear  obvious  to  every  thinking  mind, 
that  there  must  have  been  a  total  suspension  of  this 
cause,  or  of  its  operations,  for  nearly  a  century  be- 
fore ;  and  from  the  following  circumstances. 

The  trees  which  he  mentions,  are  mostly  slow  in 
their  growth,  particularly  the  cypress  and  the  gum, 
(L.  Styraciflua) ;  if  the  increase  or  extension  of  the 
alluvial  formation  or  district,  depends  on  the  cause 
which  Mr.  La  Trobe  has  assigned,  and  this  increase 
has  been  as  great  as  is  alleged  ;  these  trees,  and  this 
forest  could  never  have  been  brought  into  existence ; 
for  as  fast  as  the  trees  had  sprouted  from  the  ground, 
they  would  have  been  buried  by  the  sand  thrown  up 
by  the  unceasing  agitation  of  the  sea,  and  operations 
of  the  winds. 

Nay  more,  if  the  trees  had  obtained  half  their  pre- 
sent growth  or  height,  before  any  inroads  of  the  sand 
had  been  made  on  them,  the  result  would  have  been 
nearly  the  same ;  for  as  the  sand  gradually  climbed 
"  up  their  trunks,"  their  verdant  foliage  would  have 
withered  and  died ;  and  such  is  the  case  by  Mr.  La 
Trobe's  own  account ;  for  he  says,  "  By  gradual  ac- 
cumulation the  hill  climbs  up  their  trunks,  they  wither 
slowly,  and  before  they  are  entirely  buried,  they  die. 
Most  of  them  lose  all  their  branches,  and  nothing  but 
the  trunk  remains  to  be  covered  with  sand  ;  but  some 
of  the  cypress  retains  life  to  the  last." 


10 

These  circumstances  afford  ample  proof  that  the 
time  has  been,  when  those  trees  had  sufficient  time  to 
shoot  up  undisturbed ;  to  grow  to  maturity  without 
having  experienced  any  material  check  in  their  pro- 
gress, which,  in  all  probability,  must  have  occupied  a 
space  of  more  than  a  hundred,  and,  perhaps,  two  hun- 
dred years. 

We  must  therefore  look  to  some  other  source  for  the 
cause  of  this  change  at  the  capes  of  Virginia.  Doubt- 
less the  erection  of  the  light  house  and  the  keeper's 
dwelling,  have  been  the  principal  local  causes  of  so 
great  and  sudden  an  accumulation  of  sand,  as  is  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  La  Trobe,  who  says,  "  That  the  sand 
hills  have  risen  since  the  establishment  of  the  light 
(which  at  that  time  was  sixteen  years)  about  twenty 
feet  in  height." 

Now  had  this  increase  been  general  on  the  coast  of 
Virginia,  and  continued  from  the  Christian  sera,  it 
would  now  exhibit  a  mountain  on  the  borders  of  the 
ocean  no  less  than  two  thousand  two  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  high. 

Mr.  Beaujour,  I  find,  in  his  Sketches  of  the  United 
States  (page  45)  has  advanced  a  similar  opinion  to 
that  of  Mr.  La  Trobe,  on  this  subject. 

Mr.  Stoddard  seems  to  have  entertained  a  similar 
opinion  relative  to  the  alluvial  formation  or  soil,  on  the 
coast  of  New  Spain  ^  for,  in  speaking  of  the  Delta  of 
the  Mississippi,  he  observes  ;  "  The  eastern  part  of 
New  Spain,  along  the  gulf,  exhibits  abundant  proofs 
of  similar  advances,  owing  perhaps  to  the  constant  ac- 


a 

cumulation  of  sand  by  the  trade  icinds,  winch  is  driven 
to  the  shore  by  the  perpetual  motion  of  the  waves  in 
that  direction." 

But  why  he  should  have  resorted  to  two  causes  for 
the  formation  of  these  alluvial  districts,  I  am  unable  to 
determine  ;  but  such  is  the  case  ;  for  he  observes, 

"  Nothing:  is  more  certain   than   that  the   Delta  has 

^ 

risen  out  of  the  sea,  or  rather,  that  it  has  been  formed 
by  alluvious  substances,  precipitated  by  the  waters 
from  the  upper  regions."* 

From  the  latter  of  these  two  opinions,  we  might 
readily  conclude  what  were  his  sentiments  on  that 
subject ;  but  we  are  soon  left  in  doubt  again,  by  the 
following  passage  :  (f  All  the  country  about  the  gulf  is 
evidently  alluvial."  This  is  doubtless  the  case  ;  but 
how  was  it  produced  ?  This  we  are  left  to  conclude 
from  the  following  :  "  At  what  time  it  was  redeemed 
from  the  sea,  no  one  can  conjecture  ;  but  as  some  of 
the  oldest  inhabitants  can  remember  when  the  sands 
were  less  dry,  much  oftener  flooded,  and  to  a  much 
greater  extent  and  height  than  at  present,  perhaps  its 
redemption  is  much  nearer  to  our  time  than  many 
are  willing  to  admit."  (Page  183.) 

The  word  "  redeemed"  in  the  above  sentence, 
seems  to  convey  but  an  indefinite  idea  on  the  subject ; 
for  it  has  but  a  very  superficial  relation  with  alluvial  for- 
mations. It  seems  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  alluvial 
district,  so  called,  was  once  lost,  perhaps  by  inroads 

*  Sketches  of  Louisiana,  page  158 — 9. 


of  the  sea,  and  again  restored  ;  or,  that  this  extent  of 
country  has  been  recovered  by  man,  from  the  sea,  by 
artificial  dikes,  or  mounds.  This  is  by  no  means  the 
case  ;  for  wherever  alluvial  formations  exist,  it  is  in 
consequence  of  direct  inroads  on  the  ancient  limits  of 
the  ocean,  rivers,  &c. 

Fortunately,  however,  Mr.  Stoddard  has  in  the  fol- 
lowing page,  removed  that  degree  of  obscurity,  with 
\vhich  the  subject  seemed  to  be  veiled,  and  enabled  us 
to  understand  what,  in  reality,  is  his  opinion  on  this 
point,  by  the  following.  "No  doubt  the  elevated 
islands  scattered  along  the  coast  and  already,  in  most 
instances,  connected  with  the  main  land  by  marshes, 
were,  not  long  ago,  situated  at  some  distance  in  the 
sea.  These  projections  are  caused  by  the  deposition 
of  the  sediment  from  the  rivers,  particularly  from 
the  Mississippi.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico,  though  of 
great  extent,  is  filled  with  shoals  and  sand  banks,  es- 
pecially near  the  land,  which  render  the  navigation 
dangerous  ;  and  the  materials  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed have  been  rolled  from  the  sources  of  the  great 
rivers"* 

It  is  a  prevalent  opinion  with  many,  that  the  entire 
alluvial  district  has  been  formed,  in  the  course  of  time, 
by  the  alluvial  deposites  from  the  rivers  that  discharge 
themselves  into  the  sea.  Others  are  of  opinion  that  it 
is  a  part  of  the  great  .whole,  but  of  more  recent  forma- 
tion than  the  primitive  or  secondary  rocks. 

That  considerable  quantities  of  matter  are  daily 
formed  and  deposited  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  is  with- 

*  Sketches  of  Louisiana,  page  184. 


13 

out  doubt  correct ;  and  that  it  is  to  this  increase  of 
alluvion,  that  we  must  attribute  the  inroads,  which 
have  been  made  upon  the  ancient  limits  of  the  ocean, 
in  several  instances  on  our  Atlantic  shores.  But  al- 
though we  are  informed  of  material  changes  having  in 
the  course  of  time  taken  place,  yet  no  one  has  attempt- 
ed to  account  for  the  immense  extent  of  alluvial  for- 
mation, where  there  are  no  rivers  of  any  consequence, 
that  could  have  contributed  much  in  this  great  and  ex- 
tensive operation.  Neither  has  any  one,  that  I  know 
of.  attempted  to  assign  any  plausible  reason  for  the 
great  difference  in  the  extent  of  the  alluvial  formation 
at  the  mouths  of  several  of  the  great  rivers  in  America, 
which  discharge  themselves  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

These  two  circumstances  are  of  such  importance  iu 
the  present  view,  that  it  would  be  inexcusable  to  pass 
them  over  without  notice. 

In  the  first  place,  I  shall  take  into  consideration  the 
five  principal  rivers  to  the  northward  of  the  Delaware, 
viz  :  the  river  of  St.  Johns,  the  Penobscot,  he  Kenne- 
beck,  the  Connecticut,  and  the  Hudson.  The  longest 
of  these  five  rivers,  viz  :  the  Connecticut,  is  from  two 
hundred  and  eighty,  to  three  hundred  miles  ;  and  the 
shortest,  viz  :  the  Kennebeck,  is  one  hundred  and  forty. 

Now  agreeable  to  Mr.  McClure's  geological  chart, 
there  is  no  alluvial  district  appertaining  to,  at  least, 
four  of  these  rivers  ;  (though  I  shall  endeavour,  by 
and  by,  to  prove  that  there  is  some  alluvial  soil  at 
their  mouths,)  and  although  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson 
is  embraced  in  the  alluvial  district,  it  has  not  in  fact 


il 

but  barely  three  miles  of  alluvial  soil  on  the  New-York 
side,*  by  which  it  passes  ;  and  the  Connecticut  river  has 
about  the  same.  How  much  the  others,  viz  :  the  St. 
John's,  which  flows  into  the  bay  of  Funda,  the  Kenne- 

*  I  have  mentioned  three  miles  of  alluvial  formation  on  the 
New- York  side,  as  it  has  generally  been  supposed,  and  in  fact  re- 
presented that  the  site  on  which  New- York  stands,  is  strictly  of 
an  alluvial  formation  ;  for  in  a  geological  description  of  York 
Island,  by  Dr.  JUkerly*  (see  Bruce's  Mineralogical  Journal,  page 
193,)  it  is  said  that  "  the  primary  part  is  all  the  island,  except 
that  over  which  the  city  is  built." 

From  the  opportunities  which  I  have  had  of  examining  York 
Island,  I  am  unable  to  reconcile  this  opinion  to  my  present  views 
of  the  subject.  That  the  ground,  on  which  the  city  is  built,  and  the 
hills  that  have  been  dug  away,  were  alluvial  is  unquestionable  : 
the  rolled  pebbles  of  various  kinds,  and  boulders  of  granite  and 
other  kinds  of  rocks  that  have  been  found  deposited  there  in  the 
earth,  are  demonstrative  of  the  fact.  But  it  does  not  follow  from 
these  premises  that  the  south  part  of  New-Y'ork  county,  or  the 
southern  extremity  of  York  Island,  is  to  be  considered  as  being  a 
part  of,  or  within  an  alluvial  district.  The  same  facts  and  appear- 
ances may  be  seen,  in  numerous  instances,  on  the  granite  ridge,  so 
called,  not  only  within  the  limits  of  the  primitive  district,  but 
upon  the  ridges,  and  those  too  in  particular  on  the  most  southern 
borders  of  the  primitive  range.  Such  I  am  inclined  to  believe  is, 
(with  due  deference  to  those  who  have  advanced  a  contrary 
opinion,)  the  real  foundation  on  which  New- York  stands;  and 
that  too  from  the  following  circumstances. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  strata  of  gneiss  are  exposed  to  view, 
on  the  surface  at  the  battery,  at  the  present  time,  and  running, 
apparently,  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  Hudson  river, 
which  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  this  ridge  or  mass  of  rocks,  is  a 
spur  of  the  granite  ridge*  and  that  it  underlays  the  whole  city. 


15 

beck  and  Penobscot  have,  I  am  unable  to  say  with  any 
degree  of  certainty  ;  but  it  may  be  presumed  that  they 
have,  at  least,  some.  But  the  river  Thames,  on  which 
New  London  stands,  cannot,  I  believe,  claim  one  rod  of 
alluvial  soil  at  its  influx,  at  least  on  the  eastern  side. 

It  may  be  alleged,  that  those  rivers  embrace  in 
their  course  so  small  a  portion  of  country,  that  it  can- 
not be  expected  that  so  great  an  extent  of  alluvial  for- 
mation should  be  formed  at  their  mouths. 

In  reply  to  this,  the  Connecticut  river  receives,  prin- 
cipally, the  auxiliary  streams,  from  a  superficies  of 
about  eighty  miles  in  breadth,  by  two  hundred  and 
eighty  in  length ;  or  £2,400  square  miles ;  while  the 

That  it  is  not  a  mere  clump  of  rocks  out  of  place  is  certain;  for 
about  twenty  years  ago,  this  ridge  or  spur  was  exposed  to  view,  and 
daily  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  Hudson  river,  at  the  north  west 
corner  of  the  battery.  Not  only  so,  but  that  its  breadth  extends 
across  to  the  ancient  or  primitive  shore  of  the  east  river  is  certain  ; 
for  I  am  informed  that  when  Messrs.  Penfield  and  Watson  began 
to  erect  their  houses,  near  the  battery,  in  1791  or  2,  they  came 
upon  a  fine  spring  of  water,  which,  though  long  buried,  was  recol- 
lected by  the  then  old  inhabitants,  to  have  been  many  years  ante- 
rior to  that  time,  a  copious  spring  and  excellent  water ;  notwith- 
standing its  being,  at  that  time,  on,  or  very  near  the  shore  of  the 
East  river.  In  clearing  out  this  spring  and  sinking  a  well,  with  a 
view  to  secure  a  supply  of  good  and  wholesome  water,  they  were 
under  the  necessity  of  blasting  several  feet  through  solid  granite 
or  gneiss.  Besides  which,  the  same  rocks  appear  in  place  again, 
I  believe,  at  Corlear's  howk,  on  the  east  side  of  the  city.  All  of  which 
circumstances  justify  the  conclusion,  that  the  southern  extremity 
of  York  Island,  though  covered  with  alluvial  grounds,  is  strictly 
primitive,  and  consequently  within  the  primitive  district. 


16 

Delaware  river  cannot  claim  two  thirds  of  this  quan- 
tity ;  and  yet  it  passes  through  an  alluvial  district,  one 
hundred  and  forty  miles. 

This  disproportion  is  so  great,  that  no  person  can 
suppose,  for  a  moment  that  the  alluvion  brought  down 
by  the  rivers,  had  any  agency  in  forming  the  district  in 
question. 

But  lest  1  should  be  considered  as  having  been  too 
limited  in  my  view,  I  will  extend  it  farther. 

From  the  Chesapeake  bay  to  East  Florida,  or 
Cape  Sable,  there  are  eight  considerable  rivers,  ex- 
clusive of  a  number  of  lesser  streams,  (viz.)  the  Roa- 
noke,  the  Pamtico,  the  Neus,  the  Cape  Fear,  the 
Pedee,  the  Santee,  the  Savannah,  the  Oconee,  and 
Oakmulge;  each  of  which  is  from  180  to  WO  miles  in 
length ;  the  most  of  them  take  their  rise  in  the  primitive 
range  of  country  ;  and  after  running  the  above  distance 
in  an  almost  south  east  course,  they  disembogue  their 
waters  into  the  Atlantic. 

Now  the  alluvial  district  at  the  confluence  of  each  of 
those  streams  is  from  100  to  180  and  even  200  miles  in 
breadth  ;  while  the  Connecticut  and  other  rivers  to  the 
northward,  pass  through  a  much  greater  extent  of 
country,  and  yet  have  but  two  or  three  miles  of  allu- 
vial district. 

To  the  southward  of  East  Florida,  there  are  two 
principal  rivers,  the  Appalachicola,  and  the  Alabama. 
These  likewise,  take  their  rise  in  the  primitive  district, 
and  after  running  in  a  south  westerly  course,  from  &40 
to  &90  miles,  discharge  their  waters  into  the  sea.  At 
each  of  these  points  the  alluvial  district  is  more  than 


17 

200  miles  in  breadth  ;  while,  as  before,  the  Hud  sou 
and  Connecticut  rivers  have  but  about  three  miles  of 
alluvial  formation  at  their  embrochures. 

But  a  more  complete  illustration  of  the  subject,  and 
a  more  positive  proof,  that  the  rivers  of  America  have 
had  but  little  or  no  agency  in  producing  the  alluvial 
district,  is  afforded  by  an  examination  of  the  two  prin- 
cipal rivers  in  North  America,  (viz.)  the  Mississippi 
and  the  river  St.  Lawrence. 

The  first  of  these  is  supposed  to  run  a  distance  of 
nearly  three  thousand  miles  through  the  country  from 
north  to  south,  and  at  the  confluence  of  which  the  allu- 
vial district  is  about  200  miles  in  width,  that  is,  below, 
or  south  of  the  primitive  range  of  country  on  the  At- 
lantic coast.  While  the  river  St.  Lawrence  may  be 
said  to  pass  through  a  distance  of  country,  almost 
equal  to  that  of  the  Mississippi,  including  Lakes  On- 
tario, Erie,  Huron,  Superior,  and  Michigan,  (and 
Herriot  says  they  are  one  river,)  and  yet  there  is  not 
three  miles  of  alluvial  formation  at  its  influx  into  the 
gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Or,  if  any  exceptions  can  be 
made  to  taking  into  the  calculation  the  great  lakes,  we 
will  include  only  lake  Ontario,  as  forming  unques- 
tionably a  part  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Its  extent  would 
then  be  about  one  third  that  of  the  Mississippi,  or  1000 
miles  ;  consequently,  we  ought  to  have  an  alluvial  for- 
mation at  its  mouth,  equal  in  breadth  to  eighty  miles  ; 
whereas,  there  is  not,  it  is  believed,  any  visible  for- 
mation of  an  alluvious  kind. 


18 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some,  that  the  increase  and  ex- 
tent of  alluvial  formations  or  deposites,  depends  more 
or  less  on  the  extent  which  a  river  or  stream  passes 
through  a  secondary,  or  transition  district ;  inasmuch 
as  the  substances  which  compose  these  two  districts 
are  more  liable  to  decomposition,*  consequently  liable 
to  be  carried  away,  by  the  meltings  of  snows  and  hea- 
vy rains,  into  the  smaller  streams,  and  from  thence  into 
rivers,  and  deposited  at  their  mouths.  But  this  will 
not  hold  good, 

The  Connecticut  river,  and  I  believe  some  others 
in  the  eastern  states,  runs  through  both  ;  particularly 
the  secondary  formation,  for  a  considerable  distance, 
and  yet  there  is  but  a  very  small  extent  of  alluvial  for- 
mation at  its  mouth. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Susquehanna  and  Po- 
tomac rivers,  each  of  which  runs  through  both  primi- 
tive and  transition  formation ;  yet  it  is  a  matter  of 
doubt,  if  we  judge  from  appearances,  whether  there  is 
one  foot  more  of  alluvial  formation  at  their  influx  into 
the  Chesapeake  bay,  than  there  was  a  thousand  years 
ago. 

An  other  opinion  is,  that  alluvial  formations  are,  in 
some  cases,  occasioned  by  the  retreat  of  the  ocean, 
which,  it  is  believed  by  many,  is  constantly  retreating, 
and  of  course  becoming  less. 

Henry,  (in  his  Travels  iu  Canada,)  says  in  his  re- 
marks on  the  subsidence  of  the  waters  in  that  region.. 

*  See  Chapter  10th. 


19 

••  every  where  the  waters  appear  to  have  subsided  from 
its  ancient  levels  ;  and  imagination  may  anticipate  an 
era  at  which,  even  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  will  be 
left  bare."  It  seems  too,  that  Lucan  entertained  a 
similar  belief  with  respect  to  the  Syrtes  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, for  he  says, 

4<  Perhaps,  in  distant  ages,  t'will  be  found, 
When  future  suns  have  ruu  their  burning  round, 
These  Syrtes  shall  all  be  dry  and  solid  ground  : 
Small  are  the  depths  their  scanty  waves  retain, 
And  earth  grows  daily  on  the  yielding  main." — 

Row's  Lucan. 

Mr.  Clinton  in  his  excellent  introductory  lecture  to 
the  literary  and  philosophical  society,  (New-York,) 
adds  two  other  kinds  of  alluvial  formation,  (viz.)  one 
occasioned  by  "the  subsidence  or  extinction  of  lakes," 
another,  from  "  the  overflowing,  retreat,  and  change  of 
rivers.'' 

It  is  a  circumstance  much  to  be  regretted,  that  in  al- 
most all  our  researches  into  the  operations  of  nature, 
our  views  of  a  subject  are  too  frequently  arrested,  and 
our  opinions  too  often  swayed  by  some  seemingly  im- 
portant detail  or  feature,  which  presents  itself  to  view, 
and  which  may  be  either  accidental,  or  adventitious. 
Such,  it  appears  to  me,  must  have  been  the  case  with 
all  those  who  have  endeavored  to  prove  that  the  sea  is 
constantly  retreating,  and  will  ultimately  become  ex- 
tinct ;  the  plain  and  only  inference  that  can  be  drawn 
from  the  writings  of  several  on  this  subject  :  among 


20 

,vhom  are  Celcius,  Playfair,  and  particularly  Mr. 
Jameson,  who  says,  "  That  the  water  of  the  ocean  has 
diminished  and  is  still  diminishing,  can  scarcely  be 
doubted.''* 

This  opinion,  in  all  probability,  must  have  been  re- 
gulated by  some  obvious  local  change,  which  has 
taken  place  ;  or  some  inroads  that  have  been  made  by 
terra  firma,  upon  the  ancient  limits  of  the  ocean,  with- 
in the  knowledge  of  man  ;  and  no  country  or  place  on 
the  face  of  this  globe,  affords  stronger  grounds  for  pre- 
sumption, or  in  fact  a  more  positive  proof  in  favour  of 
such  an  opinion,  than  the  alluvial  district  which  lies 
along  upon,  and  constitutes  the  present  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  ocean  for  nearly  the  entire  extent  of  the  Unit- 
ed States. 

But  as  strong  as  they  are,  or  however  formidable 
and  rapid  may  have  been  the  strides  of  the  alluvial 
formation  upon  old  Neptune's  wide  domains,  it  by  no 
means  constitutes  a  proof  of  the  actual  retreat  of  the 
sea ;  and  I  much  doubt  whether  a  case  in  point,  really 
exists  on  the  face  of  the  globe,  that  is  calculated  to 
prove  that  there  is  one  square  mile  less  of  superficies 
on  the  face  of  the  ocean,  than  there  has  been  at  any 
time  subsequent  to  the  subsidence  of  the  general  de- 
luge. On  the  contrary,  I  am  iuclined  to  believe,  that 
no  decree  ever  promulgated  to  man,  through  the  me- 
dium of  Holy  Writ,  has  been  more  generally  exe- 
cuted or  fulfilled ,  nor  any  command,  which  that 

*  Notes  to  Cuvier's  theory,  page  214,  American  edit. 


21 

Sacred  Volume  contains,  has  been  more  implicitly 
obeyed  than  that  which  says  of  the  limits  of  the  ocean, 
"  hitherto  shalt  thou  come  and  no  farther,"*  or  in 
other  words,  thou  shalt  come  here  and  no  farther,  and 
here  shall  thy  proud  waves  be  stayed. 

But,  lest  my  opinion  should  be  considered  as  not 
only  groundless,  but  opposed  to  numerous  circum- 
stances which  tend  directly  to  prove  a  contrary  opi- 
nion ;  1  shall  take  a  superficial  view  of  the  subject,  and 
ofl'cr  a  few  remarks  in  support  of  my  assertions. 

It  will  readily  be  admitted  that  considerable  ad- 
vances have  been  made,  by  alluvial  formations,  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  on  the  ancient  limits  of  the 
ocean ;  at  the  same  time,  it  will  not  be  denied,  that 
considerable  inroads  have  been  made  on  the  land  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  by  the  raging  or  overflow- 
ing of  the  sea.  Many  places  have  suddenly,  or  gra- 
dually disappeared  from  above  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  and  many  have  as  suddenly,  or  as  gradually, 
risen  above  the  surface.  Numerous  cases  of  this  kind 
could  be  enumerated  if  it  were  necessary ;  however,  a 
few  facts,  it  is  presumed,  will  suffice  in  the  present 
case. 

The  alluvial  district  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Ame- 
rica, is,  perhaps,  as  large  as  that  which  skirts  the 
margin  of  any  country  in  the  known  world  ;  the  rea- 
sons of  which  will  be  hereafter  assigned. 

*  Job  Chap.    38,    verse  llth.- Chap.    26,    verse  10th,— Jere- 
miah 5,  22d. 


It  may  be  thought  that  no  instance  has  occurred, 
where  a  corresponding  quantity  of  land  has  disap- 
peared. It  must  be  recollected  that  it  is  a  very  pre- 
valent opinion  (though  by  no  means  settled)  that  the 
whole  Carribean  sea  was  once  occupied  by  dry  land, 
and,  together  with  all  its  islands,  attached  to  the 
continent. 

Whether  this  be  true  or  not,  certain  it  is  that  some 
parts  have  sunk  or  disappeared  since  the  memory  of 
man  :  such  for  instance  as  Port  Royal  in  Jamaica. 

A  similar  opinion  is  likewise  entertained  of  the  Ca-* 
nary  Islands.  Humboldt,  I  believe,  considers  that 
they  are,  or  once  were  decidedly  a  part  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Africa. 

But  considering  these  two  cases  as  wanting  confir- 
mation ;  there  are  others  which  cannot  be  denied, 
and  particularly  in  the  Mediterranean.  Mr.  P acock, 
who  travelled  into  Egypt  in  17^7?  observes,  that  the 
Mediterranean  has  in  all  probability,  gained  quite  as 
much  ground  as  it  has  lost. 

"Nothing  more  is  necessary,"  he  says,  ff  to  produce 
conviction  of  this,  than  to  examine  the  coast ;  for  you 
will  see,  under  water,  not  only  a  variety  of  artificial 
productions  manufactured  in  the  rock  ;  but  likewise 
the  ruins  of  many  edifices.  About  two  miles  from 
Alexandria  are  to  be  seen  under  water  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  temple."*  " 

*  Travels  into  Egypt,  vol.  I.  pages  4  &  30. 


23 

The  Abbe  Fortis  entertained  a  belief  that  the  sea 
was  not  only  gaining  upon  the  land,  but  that  its  level 
is  becoming  more  and  more  elevated,  for  he  observes, 
"  Proofs  are  also  daily  discovered,  that  its  level  ac- 
tually rises/1*  and  in  proof  of  its  advances  he  fur- 
ther says,  "  In  like  manner  some  islands,  and  large 
pieces  of  the  continent,  about  Grado,  have,  within 
these  few  ages,  been  covered  by  the  sea,  which  every 
day  advances  and  threatens  fresh  mischief;  thus  also 
the  sea  gained  ground  near  Malamores,  and  covered  a 
large  tract  of  inhabited  land,  the  ruins  of  which  may 
still  be  seen  under  water  in  a  calm  :  thus  also  the  an- 
cient city  of  Corea,  opposite  Rimini,  is  covered  by 
the  waves,  and  more  than  a  mile  from  land  ;  and  thus 
also  the  suburbs  of  Pola  in  Istria  are  submerged,  and 
along  the  shore,  at  low  water  the  Mosaic  pavements 
are  discovered,  as  well  as  at  Sipar  not  far  from  Parano. 
several  palms  under  water.?'f 

We  are  also  informed  by  an  anonymous  English 
traveller,  in  his  Journal  of  a  Voyage,  in  which  he 
describes  several  very  ancient  cities  of  the  Archipelago : 
and  in  which  he  thus  speaks  of  Delos.  "  We  found 
nothing  else,  all  along  the  coast,  but  the  ruins  of  su- 
perb edifices  which  had  never  been  completed,  and  the 
ruins  of  others  which  have  been  destroyed.  The  sea 
appears  to  have  gained  on  the  Isle  of  Delos,  and  the 
water  being  clear,  and  the  weather  calm,  we  had  an 
opportunity  of  observing  the  remains  of  beautiful 

*  Abbe  Fortis'  Travels  in  Dalmatia,  page  17.       t  Do.  p.  464. 


34 

buildings,  in  places  where  now  the  fishes  swim  at 
their  ease,  and  on  which  the  small  boats,  of  these 
countries,  row  to  get  at  the  coast." 

It  is  pretty  generally  known  and  believed  that  the 
whole  gulf  of  Tripoli  has  been  formed  by  the  sinking 
or  disappearance  of  all  that  part  or  portion  of  the 
coast  of  Africa  comprehended  between  Tripoli,  or 
cape  Bon  near  Tunis  and  cape  Ras-Sern  near 
Bern  a ;  and  that  too,  long  since  the  records  of  time 
have  been  substantially  authenticated.  "  This  opi- 
nion is  supported,"  says  Mi  Bey,  *'  by  the  great 
banks  of  Kerkena  wbich  are  considered  as  the  re- 
mains of  a  country  submerged."* 

Mr.  Shaw,  in  describing  the  ancient  city  of  Sher- 
shell  and  its  port,  says  that  the  present  inhabitants 
"  have  a  tradition  of  the  whole  city  being  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  ;  and  that  the  port,  formerly  very 
large  and  commodious,  was  reduced  to  the  miserable 
condition  it  is  in  at  present,  from  the  arsenal  and  other 
adjacent  buildings  which  were  thrown  into  it  by  the 
shock."  "The  Cothon"  he  observes,  "that  had  a 
communication  with  the  western  port,  is  the  best  proof 
of  this  tradition  ;  for,  when  the  sea  is  calm  and  low 
(as  it  frequently  happens  after  strong  S.  E.  winds)  we 
then  discover,  all  over  the  area,  so  many  massy  pillars 
and  pieces  of  great  walls,  that  it  cannot  well  be  con- 
ceived how  they  should  come  there  without  some  such 
violent  concussion. "f 

*  All  Bey's  Travels.       t  See  Shaw's  Travels,  page  39. 


S3 

Numerous  cases  of  a  similar  kind  could  easily 
be  cited  if  necessary,  But  admitting  that  the  sea 
has  gained  upon  the  land  in  some  instances,  and  that 
the  land  on  the  contrary  has  gained  upon  the  sea  in 
others  ;  it  does  not,  by  any  means,  prove  that  there  is 
an  actual  but  gradual  diminution  of  the  waters  of  the 
ocean.*  If  such  were  the  case,  we  should,  every 
year  have  numerous  islands  appearing  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  almost  every  part  of  the  ocean ; 
that  is  to  say,  in  the  vicinity  of  islands  and  continents. 
Not  only  so,  but  we  should  have,  every  succeeding 
year,  innumerable  reefs,  or  hidtlen  rocks  and  quick 
sands  to  encounter,  at  the  risque  of  the  lives  of  mil- 
lions of  our  fellow  creatures,  and  ultimately,  the  al- 
most total  occlusion  of  a  friendly  intercourse  between 
the  nations  of  the  earth,  as  well  as  almost  a  complete 
annihilation  of  commerce  upon  the  bosom  of  its 
waters. 

But  this  is  not  the  case  ;  Heaven,  in  its  unerring 
foresight,  has  decreed  it  otherwise  ;  and  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  doubtless,  retains  the  same  elevation,  and  ex- 
tent of  superficies  that  it  did,  at  least  five  thousand 
years  ago.  Of  this,  we  have  the  most  unquestionable 
evidence  that  can  be  required  ;  and  that  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  world.  The  shores  and  coast  of 
America  afford  sufficient  data  to  calculate  upon,  with- 
out having  a  recurrence  to  foreign  countries. 

*  To  this  opinion,  De  Luc  seems  to  be  decidedly  opposed,  and 
say*.  li  Proofs  are  every  where  found  that  such  a  change  is  chi- 
merical." 

I 


26 

There  are  a  great  number  of  rocks,  whose  points,  or 
heads*  at  complete  low  water,  just  shew  themselves 
above  its  surface,  and  have  been  well  known  in  that 
situation  for  more  than  one  hundred  years  past,  and 
without  the  smallest  visible  alteration  in  their  appear- 
ance, at  that  particular  state  of  the  tides. 

The  Lattimer  rock,  lying  about  midway  in  the 
Khode  Island  passage,  through  Long  Island  Sound, 
affords  a  striking  instance  of  this  kind.  This  rock 
has  been  well  known  for  more  than  one  hundred  years. 
Its  head  or  apex,  at  a  certain  state  of  the  tide,  appears 
just  above  the  water  near  the  middle  of  the  passage 
between  Fisher's  Island,  and  Watch  Hill,  on  the 
Stonington  side,  (Connecticut.) 

Now,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Nilometer  affords  a 
better  standard  to  judge  of  the  increase  and  decrease 
of  the  river  Nile,  than  the  above  rock  does,  of  the  ac- 
tual increase,  or  decrease  of  the  ocean  on  the  coast  of 
America. 

I  could  enumerate  several  others,  equally  as  well, 
if  not  better  known,  and  no  less  suitable  objects  by 
which  to  regulate  our  opinions  on  the  subject.  Among 
these  are  the  Hogsback,  and  several  others,  at,  and 
near  Hurl  Gate  at  the  western  extremity  of  Long 
Island  Sound. 

Now  although  no  visible  difference  is  perceptible  in 
these  rocks,  as  to  their  positions,  and  appearances  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  it  may  be  said  that  they 
have  not  been  sufficiently  long  known  and  observed,  to 
enable  us  to  determine  a  point  of  so  great  importance. 


§7 

Admitting  this  to  be  the  case,  if  we  refer  to  coun- 
tries, well  known  in  history  from  the  most  remote 
periods  of  time,  in  search  of  objects  on  which  to  fix 
our  attention,  we  are  sure  of  a  successful  result ;  for 
the  shores  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  afford  the 
most  abundant  proofs  that  the  sea  still  rolls  its  proud 
waves  to  the  extent  of  its  ancient  limits,  which  it 
could  not  do,  if  it  has  been  and  is  constantly  de- 
creasing. 

"  Upon  the  western  banks  of  the  Tafna,  almost  con- 
tiguous to  the  sea,  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Siga; 
once  the  royal  city  of  the  Numidian  kings.'5* 

Its  present  name  is  Tackum-breet,  the  Tebecritum 
probably,  of  Leo. 

Of  the  ancient  city  of  Sher-shell,  Mr.  Shaw 
says,  "  Nothing  certainly,  could  have  been  better 
contrived  for  strength  and  beauty  than  the  ancient 
situation  of  this  place.  A  strong  wall  forty  feet  high 
supported  with  buttresses,  and  winding  itself  near  two 
miles  through  the  several  creeks  of  the  sea  shore,  hath 
secured  it  from  all  encroachments  of  the  sea."\ 

Cape  Blanco  (in  Africa)  the  Promontorium  Can- 
didum  of  Pliny,  and  probably  the  Promontorium  Pul- 
chrum  of  Livy,  where  Scipio  made  his  descent  on  his 
first  African  expedition,  is,  according  to  Mr.  Shaw9 
the  same  in  situation  and  appearance,  as  it  respects  the 
sea,  that  it  was  in  the  days  of  Scipio. t 

*  Shaw's  Travels  page  19.     t  Do.  page  39.     j  Do.  page  142. 


28 

Of  the  port  of  Hippo  on  the  coast  of  Barbary,  he 
«ays,  (i  There  are  still  remaining  the  traces  of  a  large 
j)i?r  that  was  carried  out  a  long  way  into  the  sea  to 
break  off  the  N.  E.  winds,  the  want  whereof,  together 
with  the  great  aversion  the  Turks  have  to  repairs, 
will,  in  a  short  time,  demolish  a  haven  that  in  any 
other  country  would  be  inestimable/5* 

Of  Fort  St.  Louis,  the  Baron  De  Tott  says  «  I 
shall  likewise  observe,  for  the  natural  philosopher, 
that  Fort  St.  Louis,  built  at  the  point  of  the  projection 
of  land  which  formerly  was  the  island  where  he  dis- 
embarked, is  still  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  sea."-{ 

The  ancient  Utica  was  a  maritime  city  situated  be- 
tween Carthage  and  the  promontory  of  Apollo.  This 
city,  which  is  now  seven  miles  from  the  sea,  together 
with  that  of  Carthage,  which  is  about  the  same  dis- 
tance from  it,  are  considered  by  some  as  unequivocal 
proofs  of  the  gradual  receding  of  the  sea. 

The  following  will  show  how  little  foundation  there 
is  for  such  a  belief,  or  how  little  support  is  to  be  de- 
rived from  this  source. 

"  Neither,  (says  Mr.  Shaw)  hath  Carthage,  the 
next  pla*ce  to  be  described,  much  better  supported  it- 
self against  the  north  east  winds  and  the  Me-jerdah  ; 
which,  together,  have  stopped  up  its  ancient  harbour 
and  made  it  almost  as  far  distant  from  the  sea  as 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  page  145. 

t  Baron  De  Tott,  vol.  II.  part  2,  page  91. — The  time  of  the 
landing  of  St.  Louis,  in  Egypt,  was  about  the  year  1240  or  43. 


Utica."  This  it  must  be  recollected,  lies  between  the 
cape  called  Castra- Cornelia  and  the  peninsula  on 
which  Carthage  stood. 

"  Upon  the  other  side  of  the  peninsula  towards  the 
south  east,  Carthage  has  been  a  looser  to  the  sea  ;  for 
in  that  direction  near  three  furlongs  in  length,  and 
half  a  fur  long  i  or  more,  in  breadth  lyeth  under  water. 
In  rowing  along  the  sea  shore/'  (where  Carthage 
stood,)  "the  common  sewers  discover  themselves  in 
several  places,  which,  being  well  built  and  cemented 
at  first,  time  hath  not  in  the  least  injured  or  im- 
paired."* 

In  MaundrePs  Journey  from  Alleppo  to  Jerusalem, 
in  the  year  1660,  he  observes,  "  In  the  Adriatic  Gulf, 
the  light  house  of  Arminium,  or  Rimini,  is  a  league 
from  the  sea ;  but  Jlncona,  built  by  the  Syracusians, 
is  STILL  close  to  the  shore.  The  arch  of  Trajan, 
which  rendered  its  port  more  commodious  for  mer- 
chants, is  situated  immediately  upon  it.  Barritta,  the 
favourite  spot  of  Augustas,  who  gave  it  the  name  of 
Julius  Felix,  preserves  no  remains  of  its  ancient 
beauty,  except  its  situation  on  the  BRINK  of  the  sea, 
above  which  it  is  elevated  no  higher  than  is  neces- 
sary to  secure  it  against  the  inundations  of  that 
element." 

Ali  Bey,  in  speaking  of  tbe  Mediterranean  sea, 
observes,  "  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  ancient  Pa- 
phos,  situated  upon  the  sea  shore,  is  a  monument  of 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  pages  150  and  151. 


30 

the  stationary  condition  of  the  Mediterranean  sea, 
which,  during  so  many  ages,  has  not  sunk  a  single 
inch  from  its  general  level."* 

As  a  further  confirmation  of  this  fact,  the  rocks  of 
Scylla  and  Garybdis,  are  still  a  dread  to  the  toil- 
some mariner,  while,  at  a  distance,  he  listens,  through 
the  sleepless  night-watch,  in  painful  anxiety,  to  their 
awful  roarings. 

Most  of  the  sea  ports,  that  were  frequented  in  an- 
cient days,  remain  still  the  same,  or  at  least  without 
any  visible  alteration,  and  are  still  the  resort  of  their 
numerous  ships ;  such  are  Malta,  Rhodes,  Marseilles, 
and  many  places  well  known  for  ages  past.f 

*  See  Ali  Bey's  Travels,  vol.     page  33. 

t  See  Cuvier's  Theory,  page  53,  American  edition. 


CHAPTER  II. 


I  HAVE  been  thus  particular,  in  order  to  prove  that  the 
sea  is  not  likely  soon  to  be  dried  up  ;  and  that  allu- 
vial formations  are  not  produced  by  the  sea. 

I  shall,  in  the  next  place,  pass  over  that  kind  of 
alluvial  formation,  which  is  said  to  occasion  the  ex- 
tinction of  lakes,  but  which  I  shall  notice  hereafter, 
and  endeavour  to  prove,  that  the  alluvion  of  rivers, 
\vith  some  few  exceptions,  is  by  no  means  so  common, 
and  so  extensive  as  is  generally  imagined  ;*  or  if  there 
be  a  visible  increase  of  alluvial  districts  in  some  few 
instances,  it  is  too  small  and  limited  to.  afford  any  sup- 
port to  those,  who  maintain  that  alluvial  districts  in 
general,  are  formed  by  rivers. 

The  alluvion  that  is  formed  by  rivers  may  be  said 
to  depend,  both  in  its  quantity  and  extent,  on  three  ma- 
terial circumstances. 

1st.  On  the  extent  of  country  through  which  the 
rivers  pass. — 2d.  On  the  nature  of  the  soil,  of  which 
the  country  is  composed. — And  3d.  on  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  current  flows  in  those  rivers. 

*  See  Chapter  llth. 


This  alluvial  formation  thus  produced,  will  be  of 
two  kinds ;  the  first  diffused,  and  the  second  circum- 
scribed, or  limited.  The  first  depends  on  the  unin- 
terrupted flow  of  the  current  of  any  river  into  a  lake, 
bay,  or  sea.  The  second  depends  on  the  obstruction 
or  check,  which  the  current  of  a  river  may  experience, 
(and  which  may  be  saturated  with  alluvions  matter,) 
by  the  tide  flowing  in  direct  opposition  to  such  current. 

As  both  these  kinds  occur,  I  shall  take  notice  of 
each,  in  order  to  avoid  any  suspicion  of  having  been 
partial  in  my  view  of  the  subject 

The  river  Thames,  (or  by  some  called  Norwich 
river,)  in  Connecticut,  is  formed  by  two  principal 
branches,  the  largest  of  which  takes  its  rise  near  the 
Massachusetts  line.  In  their  courses,  they  receive  a 
gieat  many  auxiliary  streams,  all  running  through  a 
country  generally  cultivated  ;  consequently  much  bro- 
ken up,  and  liable  to  be  carried  away  by  rains  and  the 
melting  of  snows  ;  yet  no  visible  increase  of  alluvial 
formation  is  produced  by  this  river,  particularly,  as 
has  been  observed,  on  the  east  side,  at  its  con- 
tinence with  Long  Island  Sound. 

In  this  latitude  and  longitude,  the  flood  tide  sets  in 
so  strong,  and  rises  so  high,  that  the  moment  in  which 
it  overpowers  the  current  of  the  river  so  as  to  check  its 
descent,  that  moment  the  sand  and  gross  silicious  mat- 
ter, which  is  kept  afloat  by  the  current  only,  is  depo- 
sited at  the  bottom,  or  in  part  wafted  back  by  the  tide 
as  far  as  it  sets  up.  Hence,  the  principal  cause  of  the 
bar  in  that  river,  which  obstructs  the  navigation  above 


33 

New-London,  and  on  which  the  Macedonian,  United 
States  and  Hornet  were  obliged  to  unload  to  get  over, 
when  the  British  lay  hefore  that  place  in  1814. 

But  this  is  not  all  that  constitutes  the  alluvion,  which 
is  brought  down  hy  rivers.  It  consists  principally  of 
two  kinds  of  substances  ;  the  one  silicious  or  sand,  and 
predominant ;  the  other  alluminous,  which  is  light  and 
is  long  held  suspended  in  water,  and,  where  there  is  a 
cm  rent,  carried  a  great  way  before  it  is  deposited  ; 
and  this  very  substance  I  shall  make  use  of,  in  part, 
to  prove  my  position. 

As  soon  as  the  current  of  the  river,  checked  by  a 
counter  current,  the  tide,  has  deposited  its  sand  and 
silicious  matter,  it  there  forms  the  principal  bar  in  the 
river ;  immediately  below  which,  the  water  deepens, 
and  the  bottom  alternates,  and  is  almost  entirely  allu- 
minous, or  composed  of  a  blue  and  intensely  tough 
clay,  of  which  all  New  London  harbour  is  composed, 
and  which  renders  it  the  surest  and  safest  anchoring 
ground  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Not  only  so,  but  the 
principal  part  of  Long  Island  Sound,  on  the  north 
shore,  is  nearly  the  same  ;  and  which  is,  doubtless,  a 
consequence  of  the  lightness  of  the  alluminous  matter, 
which  is  held  long  suspended  in  water,  and  so  widely 
diffused  before  it  is  deposited.  Hence  it  is,  that  no 
visible  alteration  is,  or  can  be  produced,  in  those  lati- 
tudes, and  under  those  circumstances,  even  for  ages. 

The  same  particulars  attend  the  Connecticut  river, 
fifteen  miles  to  the  westward  of  the  Thames  ;  with 
this  difference,  however,  that  the  latter  discharges  its 


waters  into  a  deep  bay,   at  the  bottom  of  which  New 
London  stands. 

The  waters  of  the  Connecticut  river,  after  passing 
through  a  great  extent  of  country,  are  discharged  al- 
most immediately  into  Long  Island  Sound  ;  the  current 
of  which,  for  nearly  three  quarters  of  the  ebb  and  flood 
tide,  being  very  strong,  crosses  the  mouth  of  the  river 
almost  at  right  angles. 

At,  or  very  near  the  confluence  of  this  river,  where 
its  current  is  checked  by  that  of  the  tide  in  the  Sound, 
the  principal  bar,  which  obstructs  its  navigation,  is 
formed  across  its  mouth,  and  is  well  known  by  the 
name  of  Say -Brook  bar. 

This  bar,  as  well  as  the  bed  of  the  river,  for  a  great 
distance  above,  is  composed  of  a  fine  silicious  sand ; 
and  at  ebb  tide,  there  is  not,  perhaps,  more  than  six 
feet  of  water  in  the  channel.  Whereas  immediately 
below  it,  we  have  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  fathoms, 
with  a  bottom  composed  of  a  tough  blue  clay. 

Here  is  no  appearance  of  alluvial  formation  occa- 
sioned by  the  river.  The  banks  on  each  side  are,  ne- 
vertheless, alluvial,  as  I  have  before  observed,  for 
about  two  and  a  half  or  three  miles  above  its  influx  ; 
but  these  are  far  above  the  surface  of  the  water  at 
flood  tide,  perhaps  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  and,  in  fact, 
were  never  known,  I  believe,  to  have  been  over- 
flowed; not  only  sp,  but  the  banks  on  the  western 
shore  and  the  land  adjacent,  were,  about  thirty  or  forty 
years  since,  covered  with  lofty  trees  quite  to  the  sea- 
shore, or  that  of  the  sound ;  many  of  which  must 


ft! 

have  required  one  hundred  years  or  more  to  perfect 
their  growth.  The  northern  shores  of  the  sound* 
were,  at  that  time,  covered  with  huge  trees  to  the 
very  margin  of  the  beach,  which  could  not  have  been, 
if  the  alluvion  increases  in  the  ratio  that  is  pretended 
by  some. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river,  or  rather  at,  and 
near,  the  ship  channel  at  Sandy  Hook,  sand  banks  and 
bars  abound  ;  but  they  are  in  part,  I  presume,  formed 
by  sands  raised  by  the  winds,  from  Long  Island  and 
the  Jersey  shore,  and  carried  into  the  water ;  and  also* 
by  the  current  of  the  East  river  and  those  on  the  Jer- 
sey side. 

The  principal  part  of  the  alluvial  matter  brought  in- 
to the  Hudson  river,  comes  from  the  country  above 
the  highlands,  and  is  principally  deposited  where  the 
current  is  first  checked  by  the  tides,  which  is  some 
way  above  the  highlands  ;  as  near  as  I  can  recollect* 
the  principal  bar  in  that  river  is  above  Kinderhook ; 
and  above  that  are  numerous  sand  bars  ;  no  river  allu- 
vion has,  I  believe,  accumulated  at  its  mouth.  The 
rocks  at  the  battery  doubtless  appear  the  same  at  ebb 
tide,  above  the  water,  (that  part  excepted  which  has 
been  covered  by  made  ground,)  that  they  did  when. 
Hudson  visited  it  in  1609. 

The  same  remarks  will,  almost,  apply  to  the  Dela- 
ware river,  with  the  exception  of  the  banks  which 
lie  in  the  channel  between  New- Castle,  and  the  capes  ; 
and  even  in  this  instance,  the  number,  size,  and  extent 
of  the  several  banks,  or  spits,  correspond  with  the 


36 

number,   size,   and  extent  of  the  rivers,   which  flow 
into  the  Delaware  river,  from  the  Jersey  and  Dela 
ware  shores. 

The  relative  situation  of  those  hanks  to  the  rivers, 
seems  to  show  that  they  were  gradually  deposited 
there,  by  the  currents  being  opposed  by  the  tides  ; 
and  that  as  soon  as  the  currents  of  the  rivers  resumed 
their  wonted  course,  uninterrupted,  these  banks  were 
modified  in  this  form,  by  the  almost  reciprocal  action 
of  the  current  of  some  of  those  rivers  which  flow  into 
the  Delaware  river  almost  opposite  to  each  other, 
and  nearly  at  right  angles.  Hence  it  is,  that  instead 
of  running  obliquely  or  across  the  river,  or  being  dif- 
fused, they  are  long  and  narrow,  and,  in  some  cases, 
ranged  parallel  to  each  other,  as  many  as  three  or 
four  in  number. 

The  next  in  course,  and  most  important  in  every 
point  of  view,  is  the  Chesapeake  bay.  If  there  was 
no  other  case  to  which  we  could  refer  to  regulate  our 
opinions,  as  to  the  truth  of  the  proposition  under  consi- 
deration, this  alone  would  be  amply  sufficient.  An  im- 
mense bay,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  known  world,  ex- 
tending from  the  sea  nearly,  or  quite,  two  hundred  and 
seventy  miles  into  the  country,  and  every  superficial 
inch  of  which  is  bounded  by  an  alluvial  soil,  or  banks 
of  alluvial  formation. 

Into  this  great  reservoir,  are  poured  the  waters  of 
about  forty  rivers  and  creeks  ;  five  of  which  are  of  the 
largest  class,  and  take  their  rise  in  the  primitive  range 
of  country. 


From  a  moderate  calculation,  this  bay  receives  the 
waters  that  are  collected  from  a  superficies  of  about 
sixty  thousand  square  miles. 

To  pretend  to  enter  into  an  examination  of  the 
probable  changes  produced  in  this  bay,  by  alluvion 
brought  down  and  deposited  in  its  bed  by  those  nu- 
merous rivers  and  smaller  streams,  would  be  extreme- 
ly tedious,  uninteresting,  and  unnecessary  ;  since  a 
reference  to,  at  least,  two  of  its  principal  streams, 
(viz.)  the  Susquehanna  and  Potomac  rivers,  will  be 
quite  sufficient  to  determine  the  probable  result  from 
the  whole  ;  and  without  entering  into  a  minute  exami- 
nation of  these  two  great  rivers,  it  may  suffice  to  say, 
that  there  is  no  material  difference  between  them  and 
the  Connecticut,  Hudson,  and  Delaware  rivers. 

The  currents  of  each  and  all  of  them  are  checked 
by  the  reflux  of  the  tides.  Whenever  that  takes  place, 
the  silicious  matter,  suspended  by  the  currents,  is  at 
once  deposited.  Hence,  the  sand  banks  and  sand  bars 
at  the  mouths  of  rivers  ;  but  the  alluminous  matter 
which  is  brought  down,  and  which  predominates  in 
the  soil,  generally,  of  the  state  of  Maryland,  is  held 
much  longer  suspended,  and  is,  doubtless,  very  gene- 
rally diffused  over  the  borders  of  the  Chesapeake 
bay. 

There  are  but  few  or  no  indications  of  alluvions 
deposites  or  formations  ;  no  islands  of  recent  formation. 
If  there  is  some  appearence  of  the  land  having  en- 
croached on  the  bay  ;  there  are  others  where  the  wa- 
ters of  the  bay  have  gained  on  the  land. 


38 

As  a  proof  of  this,  where  there  is  an  appearance  of 
made  ground,  there  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  shrub  on 
its  surface.  Where  there  are  indications  of  the  wa- 
ter having  tresspassed  on  the  ancient  limits  of  the 
shores,  (which  is  mostly  in  consequence  of  severe  and 
long  continued  storms  or  gales  of  wind,}  the  banks, 
which  are  high  above  the  water  and  often  covered  with 
aged  oaks,  whose  boughs  have  hung  leafless  over  its 
surface  for  at  least  a  hundred  winters,  are  broken  and 
washed  down  by  the  force  of  the  surf,  and  those  trees 
are  laid  prostrate  on  the  beach. 

The  Mississippi  river  is  perhaps,  an  exception  in 
this  case  ;  having,  no  doubt,  occasioned  a  considerable 
extent  of  alluvial  formation  at,  and  near,  its  influx  into 
the  gulf  of  Mexico ;  but  it  appers  by  no  means  diffi- 
cult to  explain  the  cause  of  this  difference. 

This  river,  and  its  tributary  streams,  not  only  flow 
through  an  almost  immeasurable  extent  of  superficies, 
and  the  water  thereby  collected,  causing  such  a  pres- 
sure as  to  bear  every  thing  before  it,  but  its  current  is 
propelled  with  such  rapidity,  that  the  tide,  which  in 
this  latitude  flows  but  little,*  has  not  the  power  to 

*  Mr.  Stoddard  says  fi  The  tides  have  but  little  effect  on  the 
water  at  New-Orleans  ;  they  sometimes  cause  it  to  swell,  but  never 
to  slacken  its  current." — Sketches  of  Louisiana,  page  164. 

This  conclusion  must  appear  obvious  to  every  one,  who  may  feel 
disposed  to  consider  the  influence  of  the  tides,  in  this  great  bay, 
the  average  height  of  which  scarcely  exceeds  that  of  eighteen 
inches.  Mr.  Stoddard  says  "The  difference  between  the  highest 
and  lowest  stages  of  water  in  the  Balize  is  about  three  feet." — Ibid. 


39 

check  its  current,  but  in  a  moderate  degree.  Hence  it 
is,  that  almost  every  thing  that  is  suspended  in  its 
waters,  is  hurried  down  its  stream  into  the  gulf  of 
Mexico. 

But  although  this  river  has  extended  its  limits  a  con- 
siderable way  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  yet  1  am  not 
inclined,  by  any  means,  to  admit  that  it  has  been  the 
principal  cause  of  the  alluvial  district  from  above,  and 
below  New-Orleans,  to  its  mouth. 

If  the  Mississippi  river  has  been  the  cause  of  the 
alluvial  formation  through  which  it  runs,  as  is  believ- 
ed by  some,  to  what  source  shall  we  look  for  the 
cause  of  nearly  the  same  extent  of  alluvial  district, 
between  it  and  East  Florida  ?  Or,  between  East  Flo- 
rida and  Cape  Hatteras  ?  Or  in  fact,  that  which  lies 
each  side  of  the  Chesapeake  bay;  every  inch  of  which 
is  surrounded  by  an  alluvial  district?  Not  certainly, 
to  successive  layers  of  alluvion,  brought  down  by  those 
rivers,  and  deposited  over  its  entire  surface ;  for  it  will 
be  admitted  on  all  hands,  that  the  alluvial  district  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  has  not,  in  all  probability,  been 
overflowed,  either  by  the  sea,  or  rivers,  since  the  sub- 
sidence of  the  general  deluge.* 

*  Baron  de  Tott  in  speaking  of  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  observes, 
u  It  is  proper  to  observe,  that  the  Delta,  more  elevated  than  the 
rest  of  Egypt,  is  bounded  towards  the  sea  by  a  forest  of  Palm  trees, 
called  the  forest  of  Beleros,  the  land  of  which  is  much  higher  than 
the  highest  rising  of  the  waters  ;  and  this  topographical  remark  is 
sufficient  to  destroy  the  system  of  the  formation  of  the  Delta  by  a 
sediment.  A  country,  which  is  higher  than  the  greatest  inunda- 
dations,  can  never  owe  to  them  its  origin."— Vol.  II.  part  2,  p.  32. 


40 

The  most  then,  that  the  Mississippi  river  ought  to 
claim,  is  that  which  extends  beyond  a  line  drawn  from 
lake  Borgne,  across  to  the  bottom  of  Atchafalaya  bay, 
which  line  will  correspond  very  nearly  with  the  line 
of  coast  from  East  Florida,  to  a  great  distance  west 
of  the  Mississippi  river. 

Whether  this  be  the  case  or  not,  we  must  look  to 
some  other  source  for  the  cause  of  the  formation  of  this 
immense  district  which  lies  on  our  Atlantic  coast. 

Viewing  the  subject  in  all  its  bearings,  there  is  no 
circumstance  that  affords  so  strong  an  evidence  of  the 
cause  of  its  formation,  as  that  of  its  having  been  depo- 
sited by  a  general  current,  which,  at  some  unknown 
period,  flowed  impetuously  across  the  whole  continent 
of  America  ;  and  that  from  north  east  to  south  west. 

With  this  in  view,  I  shall,  in  the  next  place,  pro- 
ceed to  examine  the  subject,  and  endeavour  to  sub- 
stantiate the  fact :  should  I  fail  in  the  attempt,  1  flat- 
ter myself  that  it  will  not  be  through  a  deficiency  in 
the  force  of  evidence,  but  of  the  amount  at  issue. 

Admitting  that  such  a  current  may  have  existed,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  inquire,  what,  in  all  probability, 
was  the  character  and  extent  of  its  operations  ?  That 
would  no  doubt  depend  on  the  extent,  gravity,  velo- 
city, and  duration  of  this  current. 

In  regard  to  its  extent,  1  believe  I  shall  make  it  ap- 
pear that  it  was  general  over  the  whole  surface  of,  at 
least,  this  continent.  Of  its  operations,  although  they 
are  strikingly  obvious,  I  shall  endeavour  to  point  them 


41 

out  more  clearly  than  they  appear  at  present,  to  eve- 
ry one. 

Of  its  gravity  and  velocity,  we  must  judge  by  its 
effects.  Of  its  cause  and  duration,  it  is  impossible  to 
determine. 

I  shall  assume  the  position  that  the  course  of  this 
current,  was  not  only  influenced  by,  but,  in  fact,  de- 
pended on  that  of  the  general  current  of  the  Atlantic 
ocean.  That  from  some  unknown  cause,  its  waters 
rose,  not  merely  above  the  common  height  of  flood- 
tide,  but  to  that  degree,  that  it  overran  its  ancient  li- 
mits, and  spread  desolation  on  its  adjacent  shores. 

The  same  fruitful  source,  from  whence  proceeded  the 
probable  cause  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  rising  at  first, 
above  its  ordinary  height,  continued  to  yield  its  in- 
exhaustible supplies,  until  this  current,  knowing  no 
bounds,  swept  lawlessly  over  the  desolated  land. 

In  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the  waters  of  the 
Atlantic,  (for  I  speak  only  of  it  at  present,)  and  the  con- 
sequent rise,  so  must  have  been  the  acceleration  and 
force  of  its  current ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  velocity 
or  rapidity  of  this  current,  so  must  have  been  its  ra- 
vages and  its  general  destruction  wherever  it  may  have 
prevailed,  whether  over  the  extended  plains,  or  be- 
neath the  mountains  lofty  heights. 

The  consequence  was,  that  the  earth  or  soil,  suscep- 
tible of  the  operations  of  this  current,  was  hurled  from 
its  bed,  wafted  beyond  the  shores  of  the  continent, 
and  deposited  in  the  ocean  all  along  the  coast.  And 
in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  soil  or  land  over,  which 

7 


43 

this  current  prevailed,  so  will  be  the  precise  extent,  or 
breadth  of  the  alluvial  district ;  except  in  some  few 
unimportant  cases,  where,  from  local  causes,  some  dif- 
ference may  appear. 

1  will  now  see  how  far  this  opinion  is  supported  by 
fapts.  From  the  entrance  into  the  straits  of  Bell-Isle, 
by  the  way  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  across  to 
Sandwich  bay,  is  but  a  small  distance ;  even  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  or  St.  John's  river, 
which  discharges  itself  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  across 
the  country  to  Orange  bay  or  harbour,  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  and  over  which  this  current  must  have  pass- 
ed, is  but  about  two  hundred  and  eighty  or  three  hun- 
dred miles,  and  that  rocky  in  the  extreme.  The  result 
Is  what  might  be  expected  ;  there  is  but  little  or  no  allu- 
vial soil,  except  on  the  margins  of  some  rixers,  which  I 
shall  have  occasion  to  notice  hereafter. 

As  we  advance  further  to  the  southward,  we  find  the 
country,  across  which  this  current  is  prevailing,  gra- 
dually increasing  in  breadth ;  that  is  from  the  coast  of 
Labrador  through  the  New  England  states  ;  and  we 
likewise  see  a  corresponding  increase  of  alluvial  for- 
mation ;  but  which,  however,  is  so  small  as  not  to  have 
been  noted  in  Mr.  McClure's  geological  chart,  until 
we  come  to  Long  Island,  extending  from  the  meridian 
of  New  London  to  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river,  in  a 
north  east  and  south  west  direction. 

It  may  be  said  that  a  great  disproportion  exists  be- 
tween the  distance  across  the  continent,  from  the  coast 
of  Labrador  to  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut  river,  and 


48 

the  alluvial  district  opposite  to  it ;  and  the  distance 
from  Sandwich  bay,  across  to  the  mouth  of  the  straits 
of  Bell-Isle  and  the  alluvial  district  opposite  to  it ;  and 
more  particularly  so,  between  the  distance  of  the  latter, 
and  that  from  the  coast  of  Labrador  and  Trenton,  in 
New- Jersey,  and  the  alluvial  district  through  which 
the  Delaware  river  runs  at  that  meridian.  This  is  ad- 
mitted, but  let  us  see  if  this  difficulty  cannot  be  ob- 
viated in  such  a  way,  as  will  tend  to  strengthen  and 
support  my  opinion,  rather  than  militate  against  it. 

It  must  be  observed,  in  this  case,  that  the  current  of 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  in  its  due  course*  would  pass 
through  the  straits  of  Bell-Isle,  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, and  the  bay  of  Funda,  in  a  line  nearly  parallel 
to  that  part  of  the  coast  of  America ;  consequently, 
much  alluvial  formation  could  not  be  expected,  except 
on  the  margin  of  the  rivers.  But  a  still  more  impor- 
tant circumstance  is  yet  to  be  considered.  As  soon  as 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  had  risen  to  such  a 
height  as  to  sweep  its  current,  (which  it  must  be  re- 
membered was  in  a  south  west  direction,)  across  the 
eastern  part  of  this  continent,  the  full  force  of  its  ope- 
rations was  acting  in  direct  opposition  to  the  current  of 
the  river  St.  Lawrence.  Hence,  meeting  with  an  in- 
surmountable check  in  its  course,  and  the  waters  of 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  urging  on  their  accumulated 
forces  in  their  usual  channel,  it  occasioned  a  reflux  up- 
on Ontario  and  lake  Champlain.  The  consequence 
was,  that  their  natural  boundaries  were  no  longer  ca- 
pable of  retaining  the  increasing  tide  ;  it  overwhelmed 


44 

the  neighbouring  country,  and  poured  forth  its  waters 
in  torrents  into  the  Connecticut  and  Hudson  rivers, 
bearing  away,  by  its  irresistible  force,  every  moveable 
substance,* 

From  hence,  and  the  increasing  influx  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, propelled  by  a  corresponding  current  into  the  gulf 
of  Mexico,  we  may  attribute  the  increase  in  breadth  of 
the  alluvial  district,  from  Long  Island  to  the  capes  of 
Delaware,  and  perhaps  further* 

Before  I  proceed  to  a  more  general  view  of  the  con- 
tinent of  America,  with  the  intention  of  pointing  out 
the  operations  of  a  general  current  which  once  flowed 
over  its  surface  ;  or  in  search  of  facts  to  prove  the  pro- 
bable existence  of  such  a  current ;  I  shall  enter  into  a 
partial  examination  of  a  few  circumstances  or  features, 
which  present  themselves  in  several  parts  of  the  dis- 
trict of  country  which  I  have  mentioned,  both  as  to 
their  locality  and  extent ;  and  afterwards  to  apply 
them  as,  at  least,  strong  presumptive  evidence  of  the  ex- 
istence of  such  a  current  at  some  remote  period  of  time. 

*  With  persons  who  have  read  the  additions  to  Cuvier's 
Theory  of  the  earth,  by  Dr.  S.  L.  Mitchell,  of  New-York, 
it  may  be  supposed  that  this  hint,  together  with  those  which  relate 
to  tht-  formation  of  alluvial  districts  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  was  de- 
rived from  that  work  :  of  which  see  pages  S35-— 345— 383 — 393, 
and  particularly  395, 

In  justice  to  myself*  it  becomes  necessary  to  observe,  that  having 
been  free  to  communicate  my  opinions  to  him  on  this  subject,  long  be- 
fore th^  publication  of  that  work,  (see  the  preface,)  there  is  reason 
to  hopp,  from  the  known  liberality  of  that  gentleman,  that  he  will, 
if  required,  shield  me  from  the  imputation  of  having  borrowed 
cither  of  those  sentiments  from  that  work. 


45 

Among  these,  is  that  of  rolled  or  water  worn  peb- 
bles of  different  kinds  ;  and  also  that  of  the  wave  like, 
or  undulating  appearence  of  almost  every  section  of 
alluvial  formation,  whether  perpendicular  to  the  sur- 
face, or  inclined,  shewing  the  operations  of  a  current 
from  the  north  east. 

The  subject  of  rolled  pebbles  is,  when  viewed  in  its 
full  extent,  one  of  the  most  interesting  geological  facts, 
that  is,  or  can  be  presented  to  the  human  view ;  for 
they  not  only  give  us  an  idea  of  the  formation  of  mi- 
neral substances  in  general,  being  composed  of  almost 
every  species  of  rock  ;  but  they  speak,  in  a  language 
that  cannot  be  misunderstood,  and  tell  us  of  some  of 
the  physical  changes  which  this  continent,  and  perhaps 
every  other,  has  undergone  ;  and  of  the  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  those  changes.  They  tell  us,  in  the  most  em- 
phatick  terms,  that  they  were,  by  a  resistless  current, 
torn  from  their  primitive  beds,  and  hurled  in  irresisti- 
ble confusion  to  where  they  now  remain. 

These  unequivocal  proofs  of  universal  desolation, 
are  interspersed  upon  the  borders  of  almost  every  river 
in  the  known  world,  which  has  its  source  in,  or  passes 
through  any  distance  of  primitive,  transition,  or  secon- 
dary formation  of  rocks. 

It  is  alleged  by  some,  that  water  worn  or  rolled  peb- 
bles are,  in  general,  brought  down  by  the  currents  of 
rivers,  and  streams  of  running  water. 

If  this  be  true,  it  would  tend  very  much  to  prove, 
that  they  were  not  washed  up  by  the  ocean,  and  left 


46 

by  its  gradual  retreat;  an  opinion  as  absurd,  as  it  is  in- 
consistent and  unphilosophical. 

It  will  be  admitted  that  the  beds  of  rivers  are  some- 
times paved,  in  a  manner,  for  a  considerable  distance 
with  rolled  pebbles  i  that  they  are  sometimes  amassed 
in  very  considerable  quantities  on  the  very  margins  of 
the  rivers,  between  high  and  low  water  mark ;  but 
this  is  by  no  means  calculated  to  solve  the  following 
question. 

By  what  physical  means,  were  those  immense  quan- 
tities of  rolled  pebbles  amassed  together,  or  thrown  up 
into  hills  that  are  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  river,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which  they  lie,  and  which  are  sometimes 
spread  over  many  square  leagues  of  country*  over 
which,  the  current  of  no  one  river  upon  earth  has  ever 
flowed?  It  is  both  morally  and  physically  impossi- 
ble that  such  results  could,  by  any  means,  be  produc- 
ed by  any  river  flowing  through  the  district  of  country 
where  they  lie. 

Nothing  short  of  a  universal  current  could  have  pro- 
duced such  eftects ;  and  it  must  have  been  of  such  ex- 
tent and  rapidity,  as  to  have  hurled  them  into  motion 
with  almost  as  much  facility,  as  the  leaves  of  trees  are 
raised  into  the  air  by  a  whirlwind. 

That  such  a  current  did  once  prevail,  they  remain  as 
an  unequivocal  testimony  ;  and  also  of  'its  operations. 
That  it  flowed  from  the  north  east,  to  the  south  west, 
is  evident  from  the  following  circumstances. 


47 

The  rivers,  if  they  may  be  so  called,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Baltimore,  run  mostly  in  a  direction  from 
north  to  south,  with  some  unimportant  deviations.  In 
almost  every  instance  where  the  rolled  pebbles  abound, 
they  are  in  much  the  greatest  quantities  on  the  west, 
or  south  west  side  of  the  river  or  creek. 

Another  circumstance  of  a  singular  nature,  and  wor- 
thy of  particular  attention  is,  that  wherever  an  auxilia- 
ry stream  falls  into  the  river  or  creek,  on  the  east  side, 
and  meanders  through  *a  valley  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance above,  and  in  a  north  east  direction,  (for  the  small 
streams  fall  into  the  principal  ones  at  an  angle  of  about 
forty-five  degrees.)  we  observe,  on  the  opposite  or  west 
side,  and  in  a  south  west  direction  from  the  mouth 
of  the  valley  and  brook,  a  considerable  elevation  of 
ground  or  hills,  and  composed,  almost  entirely,  of  roll- 
ed pebbles  and  sand ;  while  on  the  east  side  there  are 
but  few,  in  comparison,  and  sometimes  none  ;  if  there 
are  any,  they  are  much  the  most  abundant  on  the  mar- 
gin, or  bank  of  the  valley  on  the  south  side. 

There  are  even  valleys  on  the  east  side  of  Jones's 
Falls,  running  for  some  distance  up  into  the  country 
in  a  north  east  direction,  and  in  which  no  water  flows 
of  any  consequence,  except  after  a  great  rain  ;  and  in 
the  hills  on  the  south  side  of  the  valley,  there  is  an 
abundance  of  pebbles ;  at  the  same  time,  but  very  few 
are  to  be  found  in  the  hills  on  the  north  side  of  the 
valley. — All  of  which  circumstances  tend  to  point  out, 


48 

in  a  very  obvious  manner,   the  operations  of  a  power- 
ful south  west  current.*  * 

This  opinion  receives  additional  support  from 


ther  circumstance.  —  The  hills  on  the  margin  of  Jones's 

*  In  support  of  this  opinion,  an  interesting  fact  has  recently  oc- 
curred, and  which,  in  this  case,  is  of  too  much  importance  to  be 
omitted. 

In  the  opening  and  extension  of  Belvidere-street,  in  this  city, 
(Baltimore,)  it  became  necessary  to  cut  through  a  hill,  on  the  west 
side  of  Jones's  Falls,  to  the  depth  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet.  This 
hill  is  on  the  very  margin  of,  and  constitutes,  at  that  point,  the 
southern  border  of  the  granite  ridge. 

Its  greatest  height  above  Jones's  Falls,  which  is  at  the  foot  of  it 
on  the  east,  is  about  sixty  feet  ;  and  is  composed  of  gneiss,  in  which 
black  horn-blend  forms  a  constituent  part. 

In  cutting  through  the  hill  the  workmen  came  upon  the  summit 
of  the  ridge  of  rocks,  at  the  depth  of  nearly  ten  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. This  it  was  necessary,  in  order  to  follow  the  grade  of  the 
street,  to  cut  away  to  the  depth  of  about  five  feet. 

The  section  or  bank  on  the  west  side  of  the  street  (its  course 
being  north  and  south)  presents  the  following  appearances. 

From  the  point  of  the  ridge,  as  exhibited  in  the  bank,  to  the 
north,  and  in  the  direction  of  the  dip  of  the  rocks,  the  slope  of  the 
ridge  or  rocks,  for  some  distance  is  gradual.  —  At  the  point  of  the 
ridge  on  the  south  side,  is  a  sudden  pitch,  from  the  shelving  or  over- 
hanging of  the  rocks.  From  this  point  to  the  extremity  of  the  sec- 
tion to  the  south,  which  is  about  sixty  paces,  the  bank  is  filled 
with  rolled  pebbles;  and  immediately  at  the  pitch  of  the  rocks  they 
appear  as  having  been  thrown  down  by  cart  loads. 

From  a  strict  examination  of  the  whole  section,  it  appears  as  if 
the  pebbles  were  driven  over  the  surface  or  northern  slope  of  the 
hill  by  a  powerful  current  until  they  had  arrived  at  this  sudden 
pitch,  when  they  were  let  fall  or  precipitated  to  the  bottom.  In. 


49 

Falls,  and  Gwinn's-Falls,  and  upon  the  west  side,  con- 
tain, it  is  true,  rolled  pebbles  of  almost  all  sizes,  from 
that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  five  or  six  pounds  weight ;  and 
they  abound,  a  mile  or  a  mile  and  a  half  to  the  west  of 

support  of  this  opinion,  there  are  but  very  few  pebbles  in  the  nor- 
thern part  of  the  section,  and  those  small — Moreover  there  are 
other  appearances  in  this  section  of  the  hill  which  (setting  all  con- 
jectures aside)  amount  to  proofs  positive  that  the  pebbles  were 
brought  and  deposited  there  by  a  powerful  current  from  the  north. 

Among  the  pebbles  in  the  bank,  on  the  south  side  of  the  ridge, 
I  have  counted  upwards  of  thirty  masses  of  granite,  micacious 
schist,  and  green  stein.  Now  well  defined  granite  does  not  occur 
within  one  mile  to  the  north  of  where  these  masses  now  lie  ;  and 
the  green  stein  range  does  not  occur  to  the  north  within  three  miles. 
To  the  south  of  the  ridge,  neither  granite  nor  green  stein  were  ever 
known  to  exist  in  place  ;  for  from  the  bank  in  which  these  masses 
now  lie,  to  the  capes  of  Virginia,  every  foot  of  land  is  alluvial. — 
Therefore  the  fair  conclusion  is  that  they  must  have  been  brought 
and  deposited  there  by  a  powerful  current  from  the  north  ;  for  in 
no  direction  to  the  south  do  the  same  kind  of  rocks  exist  within  the 
distance  of  five  and  perhaps  six  hundred  leagues. 

As  the  appearances  in  the  above  described  bank,  or  section  of 
the  hill,  are  liable  to  changes  by  the  operations  of  rains,  or  by  dig- 
ging and  levelling  for  the  purposes  of  building,  and  which  may  here- 
after render  the  statement  doubtful,  they  have  been  examined 
by  two  respectable  gentlemen  who  will  substantiate  the  facts,  as 
described. 

Similar  facts,  I  believe,  are  observable  from  one  extremity  of 
the  granite  ridge  to  the  other,  or  from  New-York  to  Georgia.  I 
have  observed  them  in  numerous  instances  in  the  alluvial  region, 
and  south  of  the  granite  ridge,  and  particularly  in  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington. At  a  little  distance  north  of  the  United  States  Branch 
Bank  in  that  city,  is  a  circumscribed  spot  of  about  one  acre  of 

8 


50 

those  streams :  sometimes  more  :  hut  as  we  recede 
from  tlio-e  streams,  in  a  south  west  or  west  direction, 
the  pebble*  invariably  grow  smaller,  so  that  at  the  dis- 
tance of  three  and  four  miles  west  of  the  streams  and 
particularly  GwinnVFalls,  they  are  not  bigger,  in 
general,  than  filberts  or  walnuts,  and  from  that  down 
to  a  bird  shot,  showing  that  the  stream  or  current  had 
the  power  of  conveying  the  small  pebbles  a  great  dis- 
tance ;  while  the  larger  ones  were  deposited,  soon  af- 
ter they  were  raised  from  the  bottom  of  those  rivers 
where,  during  preceding  ages,  they  had  been  mostly 
formed,  on  or  near  the  margin  of  those  streams. 

It  may  be  a  question  with  some  ;  from  whence  came 
these  pebbles  ?  This  seems  to  be,  by  no  means,  a 
difficult  matter  to  solve. — These  streams  have  their 

ground,  covered  with  masses  of  rocks  and  rolled  stones  of  various 
sizes,  mostly  of  a  quartzose  kind,  or  in  other  words  of  granular 
quartz.  Among  these,  I  discovered  in  February  (1820)  rolled 
masses  of  Amygdaloid,  and  of  hornblend  porphyry,  containing;  epi- 
dote,  both  peculiar  to  the  Blue  Ridge  or  South  Mountains  in 
Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  and  which  cannot  be  found  in  any 
place,  perhaps,  within  sixty  miles  of  Washington  city.  More- 
over, among  these  rocks  were  some  of  a  granular  quartz,  that 
would  weigh,  probably,  from  two  to  five  hundred  weight,  contain- 
ing perfect  impressions  of  shells  resembling  the  Terrebratu- 
lite.  This  kind  of  rock,  with  like  impressions,  is  not,  I  am  credi- 
bly informed,  to  be  found  in  any  place,  in  a  northern  direction, 
short  of  Herkimer  county  state  of  New-York ;  or  far  beyond  the 
North  Mountains  in  Pennsylvania.  From  the  place  at  which  they 
now  lie,  (which  is  alluvial,  and  three  quarters  of  a  mile  from  the 
Potomac  r'wr,)  to  the  Atlantic  ocean  which  is  about  two  hundred 
miles,  every  mcii  of  country  is  of  an  alluvial  formation. 


51 

source  either  in  the  primitive  or  transition  rans;e,  and, 
in  every  instance  run  through  the  former  or  granitick 
ridge;  so  that  there  could  have  been  no  want  of  ma- 
terials to  form  water  worn  pebbles. 

The  same  may  be  observed  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Susquehannah  river  below  the  granite  ridge.  What 
the  appearances  are  above,  I  am  unable  to  say. 

The  same  I  believe  is  the  case  with  the  Delaware 
river. — How  it  is  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hudson  river, 
at  Bergen,  and  the  other  places  in  its  vicinity,  1  cannot 
recollect ;  but  the  alluvial  formation  on  which  New- 
York  stands,  is  filled  with  rolled  pebbles  :  while  but 
feu  are  to  be  found  on  the  Long  Island  side  opposite 
or  in  any  part  of  the  northern  shore  of  that  island. — I 
believe  that  the  principal  part  of  the  streets  in  New- 
York,  are  paved  with  the  stones  that  were  dug  out  of 
the  hills,  in  and  near  the  city,  in  levelling  them  down. 

These  stones  were,  doubtless,  first  brought  down 
by  the  current  of  the  east  river ;  or  at  least  were  formed 
on  and  above  the  granite  ridge  ;  and  were  subsequent- 
ly, by  the  north  east  current,  which  I  have  mentioned, 
raised  from  the  bottom  of  the  river,  and  deposited  with 
the  alluvian  on  its  western  shore,  above,  and  where 
New-York  stands. — This  is  from  four,  to  five  or  six 
miles,  south  of  where  the  stones  were  probably  formed  ; 
and  which  distance,  corresponds  with  that  of  a  number 
of  other  places ;  which  inclines  me  to  believe  that  the 
rolled  pebbles  in  the  alluvial  districts  of  this  country, 
lie,  in  general,  from  three  to  five  miles,  aad  sometimes 


53   - 

more  from  their  original  ganguc  or  locality  ;  and  that 
always  in  a  south  west  direction  from  it. 

I  shall  in  the  next  place  take  notice  of  the  Connec- 
ticut river.  The  falls  over  which  this  river  runs,  for 
the  distance  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  miles  above  its  influx 
into  the  sea  or  sound,  are,  I  believe,  principally  com- 
posed of  a  fine  grained  ferruginous  sand  stone  ;  and  for 
the  distance  of  four  miles  below  what  is  called  the  foot 
of  the  falls  of  the  Connecticut  river,  the  margin  of  the 
western  bank  and  bed  of  the  river  is  covered  with  wa- 
ter worn  pebbles  of  the  same  kind,  as  the  rocks  which 
compose  the  falls  above  ;  while  for  the  same  distance 
on  the  opposite  or  eastern  shore,  there  is  scarcely  a 
stone  to  be  found,  until  at  the  distance  of  five  miles  be- 
low the  falls,  a  small  river  discharges  itself  into  the 
Connecticut  river  on  the  east  side.  This  small  stream, 
called  Scantic,  has  its  source  in  a  primitive  range, 
called  the  East  Mountains,  in  contradistinction  to  a 
like  range  on  the  western  side  of  the  Connecticut 
river,  and  flows  for  several  miles  over  a  rocky  and 
stony  bed,  before  it  enters  the  alluvial  district,  which 
is  from  four  to  five  miles  wide  at  this  place.  Its  gene- 
ral course  is  south  westerly,  until  within  one  mile  of 
its  confluence,  where  its  course  is  almost  due  west,  in- 
clining northerly,  and  enters  the  Connecticut  river 
nearly  at  right  angles. 

The  margin  of  the  Connecticut  river  below  the 
Scantic  river,  for  some  distance  from  the  water,  and 
also  its  bed,  are  covered  with  water  worn  pebbles  or 
stones  ;  at  the  same  time,  not  a  stone  is  to  be  found  in 


53 

the  bank  of  the  Scantic  river,  nor  at  its  mouth  on  the 
north  side,  except  such  as  have  been  brought  or  thrown 
thfre  from  the  south  shore  ;  neither  is  there  any  on  the 
opposite  shore  of  the  Connecticut  river. 

It  may  be  observed  here,  that  where  a  current  is  of 
sufficient  force  to  move  the  pebbles  on  the  bed  of  a 
river  or  creek,  so  as  to  carry  them  down  the  stream  to 
its  month,  and  discharge  them  into  a  larger  stream  or 
ri\er,  it  would  be  very  natural  at  least,  to  expect  to 
find  them  below  the  mouth  of  the  auxiliary  stream,  and 
not  above  it. 

This  is  undoubtedly  correct ;  but,  in  the  present  in- 
stance, 1  have  remarked  that  the  Scantic  river  enters 
the  Connecticut  river  nearly  at  right  angles;  conse- 
quently, when  the  current  of  this  river  was  sufficient 
to  carry  the  pebbles  down  the  stream,  they  would  be 
thrown  into  the  Connecticut  river,  at  some  distance, 
and  that  corresponding  with  the  angle  which  the  Scan- 
tic  river  makes  with  the  Connecticut  river,  inclining, 
however,  a  little  down  the  stream  of  the  latter. 

In  this  case,  an  abundance  of  pebbles  would  be 
found  at  the  mouth  of  "the  Scantic:  but  it  is  not  so. 
It  is  perhaps  three  hundred  yards  distant  below  its 
mouth,  before  the  pebbles  on  the  beach  commence; 
and  they  continue  to  cover  the  shore  for  half  or  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  below ;  having  the  appearence  of  be- 
ing  raised  from  the  bed  of  the  Scantic,  and  carried  ob- 
liquely or  diagonally  across  in  a  south  west  direction, 
and  deposited  in  a  bank,  that  is  perfectly  alluvial,  on 
the  margin  of  the  Connecticut  river,  because  checked 


there  by  the  powerful  current  of  that  river  which  sets 
almost  due  south. 

That  these  pebbles  were  brought  from  near  the  pri- 
mitive range  of  mountains  to  the  east,  is  probable  from 
thi*  circumstance.  I  have  often,  when  a  boy,  gathered 
the  carburet  of  iron  or  black  lead,  in  rolled  masses, 
among  the  stones,  on  this  beach. 

It  may  be  said  in  reply  to  these  remarks,  that  they 
are  natural  results,  and  could  not  otherwise  be  expect- 
ed ;  that  where  a  river  runs  any  distance  through  a 
stony  country,  and  even  passes  some  distance  through 
an  alluvial  soil,  the  water  worn  pebbles  will  in  time, 
be  carried  down  the  stream,  and  be  deposited  at  or 
near  the  river's  mouth. 

Let  us  now  see  whether  this  opinion  is  correct. 
The  Windsor  river  so  called,  (an  auxiliary  stream 
that  falls  into  the  Connecticut  river,)  is  composed  of 
two  branches,  one  of  which  takes  its  rise  in  a  primitive 
range  in  the  county  of  Litchfield,  (Conn.)  the  other  in 
the  same  range  in  Massachusetts.  The  first  of  these 
runs  in  an  easterly  direction  until  it  arrives  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain  near  Farming'ton,  (Conn.)  where  it 
takes  a  northerly  course,  until  it  joins  the  second 
branch  called  Salmon  brook,  which  comes  from  the 
northward ;  when  suddenly  turning  at  right  angles,  it 
passes  in  one  stream,  through  the  mountain  :  from 
thence  it  takes  a  south  easterly  direction,  and  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  Connecticut  river  on  the  west 
side  (as  may  be  seen  by  the  map  of  Connecticut)  about 
two  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Scantic  river.  From 


55 

the  passage  of  the  Windsor  river  through  the  moun- 
tains, to  the  distance  of  between  four  and  five  miles, 
it  runs  over  almost  one  continued  bed  of  rocks  ;  and 
during  a  time  of  freshet  or  high  water,  the  current  flows 
with  the  rapidity  of  a  sluice.  From  thence  to  the  Con- 
necticut river,  it  flows  through  a  district  of  alluvial 
formation. 

From  the  foot  of  the  falls  (so  called)  to  the  distance 
of  two  miles  below,  the  bed  of  the  river  is,  in  many 
places,  covered  with  water  worn  pebbles,  which  have 
been,  in  the  course  of  time,  hurled  down  its  stream 
thus  far  only. 

From  thence  to  its  discharge  into  the  Connecticut 
river,  about  two  miles,  scarcely  a  pebble  is  to  be  found, 
big  or  little,  neither  on  its  bed,  in  its  banks,  nor  at, 
or  below  its  mouth  :  and  what  is  still  more  worthy  of 
remark  is,  that  from  some  distance  above  the  foot  of 
the  falls,  to  where  the  pebbles  cease  to  cover  the  bed 
of  the  river,  the  hills  on  the  south  west  side  of  the  ri- 
ver (its  course  being  south  east)  are,  in  many  places, 
filled  with  water  worn  pebbles  ;  while  on  the  northeast 
side  from  its  passage  through  the  mountains  to  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Connecticut  river,  scarcely  any  peb- 
bles are  to  be  seen ;  a  circumstance  that  cannot  fail  to 
excite  the  attention  of  an  observer. 

Such,  in  part,  are  the  results  of  my  own  observations 
on  the  subject  of  rolled,  or  water  worn  pebbles. 

Let  us  now,  for  a  moment,  inquire  into  the  probable 
cause  of  so  powerful,  and  so  general  a  current ;  and 
since  nothing  short  of,  at  least,  a  partial  deluge, 


56 

could  have  overflown  the  country  to  the  extent  which 
is  necessary  to  produce  the  effects  which  1  have  men- 
tioned, we  must  look  to  a  partial  or  general  deluge,  as 
absolutely  necessary  in  the  first  place. 

Of  such  we  have  no  authentick  account,  excepting 
that  which  happened  in  the  days  of  Noah.  Neverthe- 
less, there  is  much  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  not  the 
only  time  in  which  this  earth  has  been  totally  or  par- 
tially inundated.  Mr.  Cuvier  seems  to  entertain  a  be- 
lief that  this  globe  has  been  thrice  deluged,  at  diffe- 
rent periods  of  time.  However  that  may  be,  we  have 
strong  indications  in  this  country,  of  there  having  been 
at  least  two  deluges,  over  the  whole  continent,  and 
which,  perhaps,  1  shall  take  notice  of  hereafter. 

Since  it  is  not  the  object  of  this  work  to  ascertain 
the  number  and  periods,  at  which  these  events  took 
place  ;  I  shall  proceed  to  inquire  into  the  manner  in 
which  an  occurrence  of  such  moment,  was  probably  ac- 
complished, and  what  influence  it  had  in  causing  a  ge- 
neral current,  sweeping  across  the  whole  continent  of 
America,  from  the  north  east  to  the  south  west,  in  pre- 
ference to  any  other  course,  or  point  of  the  compass. 

To  this  end,  I  shall  examine  the  plain  text  as  re- 
lated in  the  7th  chapter  of  the  book  of  (renesis,  verse 
seventh  :  "For  yet  seven  days,  and  I  will  cause  it  to 
rain  upon  the  earth  forty  days  and  forty  nights,  and 
every  living  substance  that  I  have  made,  will  I  destroy 
from  q^the  face  of  the  earth." 

It  is  generally  admitted,  by  almost  all  who  believe 
in  the  universal  deluge  or  Noatic-flood,  that  it  was 


57 

caused  by  incessant  torrents  of  rain  for  the  above 
mentioned  space  of  forty  days  and  forty  nights.  Such 
is  the  language  of  Josephus  ;  "  The  Almighty,  at  the 
appointed  time  caused  torrents  of  water  to  fall  upon 
the  earth,  in  such  rapid  and  ceaseless  succession  for 
the  space  of  forty  days,  &c." 

Let  us  suppose  this  to  have  been  the  fact,  and  that 
it  was  likewise  universal.  If  this  is  admitted,  which 
is  by  no  means  improbable,  it  affords  but  little  or  no 
grounds  for  a  belief  that  a  general  current  could  have 
been  a  consequence. 

The  gradual  or  rapid  increase  of  the  waters  must 
have  depended  on  the  quantity  which  fell  into  the 
bosom  of  the  ocean,  and  that  also  which  fell  on  the 
face  of  the  different  countries  distributed  over  the 
globe.  This  being,  we  will  suppose,  equal,  or  nearly 
so,  could  have  no  tendency  to  cause  a  current  in  the 
former. 

With  respect  to  the  latter,  the  case  must  have  been, 
widely  different,  for  a  certain  space  of  time ;  for  in 
proportion  to  the  height,  inequalities,  and  rapid  or 
gradual  descent  of  any  district  or  country,  towards  the 
sea,  and  to  the  quantities  of  water  which  fell  upon  the 
face  of  such  country,  so  must  have  been  the  increase 
and  rapidity  of  the  currents  which  flowed  over  its 
surface,  into  its  rivers,  and  thence  into  the  sea;  and 
such  no  doubt  they  were,  on  this  occasion,  that  all 
nature  stood  appalled  at  the  momentous  scene  ;  while 
bursting  torrents  rushed  impetuously  from  the  moun- 
tain's brow,  and  hurled  destruction  in  their  mad  career, 

9 


58 

But  even  these  could  not  have  had  any  influence  il 
producing  a  general  current  in  the  ocean ;  for  in  pro- 
portion to  its  rise,  the  rivers,  over  the  face  of  all 
countries,  falling  into  the  sea  in  every  possible  direc- 
tion, and  mingling  in  the  parent  mass,  would  be 
checked  in  their  course,  and  ultimately  subdued,  as  the 
waters  of  the  sea  inundated  the  land,  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  flood  tide  of  the  ocean,  checks  the  cur- 
rent of  a  river  or  rivers. 

But  admitting  that  the  rain  fell  in  torrents  for  forty 
days  and  forty  nights  "  in  ceaseless  succession,"  it  is 
not  only,  very  much  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  it 
could  have  had  any  influence  in  causing  a  general 
current,  but  whether,  in  fact,  the  general  deluge  could 
have  been  caused  from  this  circumstance  alone ;  for  it 
is  said  that  after  the  forty  days  the  flood  was  upon  the 
earthy  "  that  the  waters  increased  and  bare  up  the 
Ark.»* 

This  being  the  case,  it  is  necessary  to  look  to  some 
other  source  for  the  cause  of  this  dreadful  event 

*  Genesis,  chap*  7,  17th  &  18th  verses. 


CHAPTER  III. 

IT  is  believed  by  some   «  that  by  the  breaking  up  of 
the  fountains  of  the  great  deep,  we  are  to  understand 
an  irruption  of  waters  from  the  southern  ocean."     Mr. 
Kirwan  seems  to  be  of  this  opinion,  for  he  observes, 
"  This  is   pretty  evident   from   such  animals   as  the 
elephant  and  rhinoceros  being  found  in  great  masses  in 
Siberia,    mixed   with    different     marine    substances ; 
whereas,  no  animals,    or  other  substances  belonging  to 
the  northern  regions  have  ever  been  found  in  southern 
climates.     Had  these  animals  died  natural  deaths,   in 
their  proper  climate,   then  the   bodies  would  not  have 
been  found  in   such  masses.     But  that  they  were  car- 
ried no  farther  northward  than  Siberia,  is  evident  from 
there  being  no  remains  of  any  animals,    besides  those 
of  whales,   found   in  the    mountains   of    Greenland. 
That  this  great  rush  of  waters  was  from  the  south,  or 
south  east,  is   further   evident    (he  thinks)  from   the 
south  east  sides  of  almost  all  great  mountains  being 
much  steeper  than  their  north,  or  north  west  sides,   as 
they  necessarily  would  be,  if  the  force  of  a  great  body 
of  water  fell  upon  them  in  that  direction." 

However  great  the  probability  may  be,  of  this  rush 
of  waters  from  the  south,  it  does  not  account  for  a 


60 

general  current  setting  from  the  north  east  to  the  south 
west,  of  which  we  have  the  most  indubitable  proofs, 
in  this  country. 

Dr.  Clark  says,  of  the  fountains  of  the  great  deep 
being  broken  up,  and  the  windows  of  Heaven  being 
opened  :  "  It  appears  that  an  immense  quantity  of 
waters  occupied  the  centre  of  the  antediluvian  earth ; 
and  as  these  burst  forth  by  the  order  of  God,  the  cir- 
cumambient strata  must  sink,  in  order  to  fill  up  the 
vacuum  occasioned  by  the  elevated  waters.  This  is 
probably,  what  is  meant  by  the  breaking  up  the  foun- 
tains of  the  great  deep.  These  waters,  with  the  seas 
on  the  earth's  surface,  might  be  deemed  sufficient  to 
drown  the  whole  globe." 

1  am  not  a  little  surprized  to  hear  an  opinion  so  im- 
probable in  itself,  coming  from  Dr.  Clarke,  as  in  say- 
ing that  "  the  circumambient  strata  must  sink,  in 
order  to  fill  up  the  vacuum  occasioned  by  the  elevated 
waters."  In  this  case,  as  there  was  no  apparent  ne- 
cessity that  the  "  circumambient  strata  should  sink 
in,"  would  it  not  have  been  as  easy  for  that  Almighty 
Being  who  created  the  earth,  to  support  these  circum- 
ambient strata  in  their  natural  place,  as  to  have  elevat- 
ed the  waters  from  this  supposed  cavern,  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  inundating  the  world  ?  To  deny  it 
is  impious. 

Another  circumstance  that  militates  against  such  an 
opinion  is,  that  if  the  circumambient  strata  sunk  "  in 
order  to  fill  up  the  vacuum  occasioned  by  the  elevated 


01 

wafers"   how,  let  me  ask,  were  the  elevated  waters 
ever  to  return  again  ? 

Unless  this  vacuum  was,  in  the  wisdom  of  an  al- 
mighty providence,  reserved  for  the  subsidence  of  the 
waters  which  once  occupied  it,  the  world  might  have 
remained  inundated  to  this  day. 

To  determine,  with  any  degree  of  precision,  what  is 
actually  meant  by  the  "  fountains  of  the  great  deep'* 
is  extremely  difficult,  perhaps  impossible. 

If  the  waters  which  caused  the  general  deluge,  or 
Noatic  flood,  were  contained  in  "  the  centre  of  the  an- 
tediluvian earth,"  and  it  could  be  ascertained  from 
what  point  or  points  the  waters  issued,  we  might 
be  enabled  to  determine  what  influence  they  could 
have  had  in  causing  a  general  current  across  the  conti- 
nent of  America,  as  well  as  the  whole  Atlantic  Ocean, 
which  follows  of  course. 

But  the  circumstance  is,  of  itself,  so  improbable,  and 
so  completely  enveloped  in  the  most  profound  obscuri- 
ty, that  no  inference  can  be  drawn  that  is  in  favour  of 
a  general  current  arising  out  of  this  cause. 

There  is,  however,  one  source,  though  not  establish- 
ed in  the  opinions  of  the  philosophers  of  the  present 
day,  which  carries  with  it  a  great  degree  of  plausibili- 
ty if  not  probability.  To  it  I  shall  refer,  until  a  better 
offers. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  a  writer  of  no  common 
celebrity,  that  the  probable  cause  of  the  general  deluge 
was  the  entire  melting  of  the  ices  at  the  two  poles  of 
the  earth — and  that  this  was  occasioned  by  "  the  sun 


deviating  from  the  ecliptick,"  an  idea  as  ingenious  as 
the  circumstance  would  be  novel ;  but  which,  howev- 
er strange  and  absurd  it  may  appear,  carries  with  it  as 
much  probability  as  that  of  the  sun's  being  made  to 
stand  still,  (in  scripture  language)  in  the  days  of 
Joshua. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  not  my  intention  to  advocate 
the  theory  of  St.  Pierre  in  the  present  instance  ;  neith- 
er shall  I  pretend  that  the  circumstance  alluded  to,  is, 
by  any  means  established,  since  no  positive  testimony 
can  possibily  be  adduced  to  substantiate  the  fact — 
nevertheless,  I  shall  assume  the  position,  and  that 
with  no  other  view  than  to  enable  us  to  trace  up  and 
comprehend,  some  of  the  probable  consequences  na- 
turally resulting  from  an  event  so  momentous  in  its 
kind,  and  so  stupendous  in  its  operations  ;  and  to  see 
how  far  they  tally  with  various  geological  appearances 
that  are  presented  to  view  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States. 

That  two  immense  regions  of  ice  have  accumulated, 
and  remain  at  the  poles,  is  certain.  That  the  one  at 
the  north  pole  extends  south  about  twenty  degrees  ; 
and  that  of  the  south  pole  about  twenty-three  or  twen- 
ty-five degrees  north.  That  they  extend  to  the  north 
and  south  into  regions  unknown  is  highly  probable. 
That  if  we  admit  the  possibility  of  the  earth's  chang- 
ing its  position,  (of  which  mention  is  made  in  several 
instances)  so  that  the  sun  should  pass  over  the  poles, 
the  consequences  must  have  been  such  as  to  mock  all 
human  efforts  of  conception.  But  from  what  we  see 


63 

and  know,  we  may  venture  to  contemplate  a  scene  so 
vast,  nor  hazard  the  imputation,  though  w  e  indulge  in 
extravagant  conjecture,  of  exceeding  the  bounds  of 
reality. 

Let  us  now  suppose  that  the  earth  with  its  axis  was 
changed  from  north  and  south,  to  east  and  west ;  and 
that  the  sun  passed  immediately  over  the  two  poles  of 
the  earth,  upon  an  unknown  meridian.  The  result, 
we  mast  readily  believe,  would  have  been  the  certain 
and  inconceivably  rapid  dissolution  of  those  immense 
hemispheres  of  ice.  For  as  soon  as  the  sun  had  miti- 
gated the  intensity  of  the  cold,  and,  by  its  genial  in- 
fluence, softened  the  temperature  of  those  cheerless 
regions,  the  yielding  ice,  in  gushing  torrents,  must 
have  rushed,  in  wild  confusion,  from  their  glassy  sum- 
mits, and  sought  a  wonted  level  in  the  neighbouring 
deep.  In  a  few  short  days  the  atmosphere  at  the 
poles  must  have  become  heated,  and  the  melting  of  the 
ices  general ;  while  each  pole  was  changed  into  an 
almost  boundless  fountain,  pouring,  incessantly,  its 
mighty  waters  into  the  adjacent  seas. 

I  shall  now,  at  least  for  a  while,  confine  my  remarks 
more  particularly  to  a  view  of  the  north  pole. 

From  this  pole,  there  are  but  two  outlets ;  the  one 
into  the  Pacific  ocean,  through  the  comparatively  nar- 
row channel  at  Bheering's  straits  ;  the  other,  through 
an  immense  channel  into  the  Atlantic  ocean,  betwe  n 
the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  north  cape  on  the  northern, 
coast  of  Lapland.  These  two  outlets  are  situated  al- 
most diametrically  opposite  to  each  other  on  the  two 


64 

sides  of  the  globe  :  and  whether  the  sun  passed  through 
the  meridian  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  and  south  sea,  as 
is  pretended,  or  upon  a  meridian  passing  through  the 
continent  of  North  and  South  America,  and  Asia,  is 
immaterial  in  the  present  view,  since  by  far  the  great- 
est proportion  of  the  waters  must  have  been  thrown  in- 
to the  Atlantic  ocean.  No  sooner  was  this  operation^ 
established,  and  this  accession  of  strength  and  power 
thrown  into  the  Atlantic  ocean  in  particular,  than  its 
tide  began  to  rise  above  its  common  limits,  accompani- 
ed by  a  consequent  current,  both  constantly  increasing, 
the  one  in  height,  the  other  in  rapidity  proportioned  to 
the  increase  of  power  at  the  focus.  These,  following 
the  natural  course  of  the  Atlantic,  soon  swelled  its  wa- 
ters above  the  shores  of  the  atljacent  continents,  over 
which  they  began  to  flow  in  riotous  disorder. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  frightful  drama,  it  is 
highly  probable  that  the  current,  issuing  from  the  pole, 
was  divided  by  the  craggy  heights  of  Spitzbergen,  and 
a  part  thrown  into  the  White  Sea  ;  while  the  other,  di- 
recting its  force  against  the  inhospitable  shores  of  Lap- 
land, and  the  rocky  cliffs  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  was 
thrown  back  upon  the  eastern  and  southern  coast  of 
Greenland  ;  from  thence  in  a  south  western  direction, 
until  it  struck  the  south  eastern  coast  of  Labrador,  along 
which  it  swept,  through  the  straits  of  Bell-Isle,  across 
Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  and  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  rapid  dissolution  of 
the  ices  at  the  pole,  constantly  progressing,  and  as  con- 
stantly increasing  the  rapidity  of  the  current  and  quail- 


65 

tity  of  water  in  the  ocean,  it  continued  to  rise  in  awful 
majesty,  and  threaten  universal  destruction  by  its  re- 
sistless force,  sweeping  across  the  neighbouring  con- 
tinents. 

A  cursory  view,  or  even  a  glance  at  the  subject,  will 
enable  us  to  form  an  idea  of  the  operations  that  must 
naturally  have  occurred,  from  this  new  order  of  things. 
The  current,  bursting  through  each  avenue,  swept  in 
its  course  every  yielding  substance.  In  a  short  space 
of  time,  the  southern  and  eastern  coast  of  Labrador, 
over  which  this  current  was  urged  with  increasing 
force,  was  desolated.  The  soil,  which,  before,  had 
fertilized  this  rocky  coast,  was  hurled  adrift,  and 
mingling  with  the  waters,  was  carried  across  the  coun- 
try into  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  across  a  part  of 
New-England,  into  the  sea  or  general  current  of  the 
ocean. 

The  waters  continuing  to  rise,  soon  inundated  the 
frozen  regions  of  Iceland  and  Greenland,  and  urging 
on  their  precipitous  course,  swept  across  Davis's  straits, 
and  rolled  their  tumultuous  surges  into  Hudson's  bay, 
embracing  the  whole  coast  of  Labrador,  while  the  un- 
equal current  of  the  St.  Lawrence  was  forced  back 
and  upwards  to  its  parent  source. 

At  this  stage  of  the  general  deluge,  while  the  waters 
were  overwhelming  the  earth,  the  awful  denunciations 
of  an  offended  God  were  fast  fulfilling,  by  the  sure 
and  utter  extirmination  of  every  beast  of  the  field,  and 
every  creeping  thing  that  creepeth  upon  the  face  of  the 

earth.     At  length,  the  floods  of  the  pole  forming  a 

10 


66 

junction  with  "BaffinVbay,  and  the  Aortic  sea,  defy- 
ing all  bounds,  overrun  their  ancient  limits,  and  hurled 
their  united  forces,  in  dread  confusion,  across  the 
bleak  regions  of  the  north  to  consummate  the  awful 
scene.  Thus  lakes  and  seas  uniting,  formed  one 
common  Ocean,  which  was  propelled  with  inconceiva- 
ble rapidity  across  the  continent  between  the  great 
chains  of  mountains,  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and, 
probably,  over  the  unpeopled  wilds  of  Smith  America, 
into  the  southern  ocean. 

Let  us  now  see  what  were  the  probable  consequen- 
ces, when  examined  in  this  view,  as  it  respects  the 
geological  appearances  which  prevail  in  almost  every 
part  of  this  country. 

As  has  been  observed,  the  operation  of  the  current, 
flowing  across  the  south  eastern  coast  of  Labrador, 
which  was  immediately  exposed  to  its  fury,  was  to 
deprive  it  almost,  if  not  entirely,  of  its  soil  which  it 
carried  away  ;  but  being  too  small  in  quantity,  no  vi- 
sible alluvial  formation  was  occasioned  upon  the 
coasts,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  United  States. 
Nevertheless  a  considerable  change  has  been  wrought 
upon  the  coasts  near  the  sea  in  those  parts,  particular- 
ly on  the  margins  of  rivers  having  a  northwardly  and 
southwardly  direction.  Professor  Cleaveland,  in  a 
letter  to  me  on  this  subject,  observes  "  I  have  attend- 
ed the  digging  of  several  wells  in  this  vicinity  (Bruns- 
wick, Maine,)  which  gave  decided  indications  of  impor- 
tant, but  probably  gradual  changes  on  our  shores. 
These  indications  appear  in  the  existence  of  blue  clay 


at  the  depth  of  twenty  feet  below  the  present  soil,  per- 
fectly resembling  that  which  is  taken  from  the  borders 
of  creeks  and  bays  of  salt  water,  in  its  odour  and  other 
properties. 

This  clay  contains  numerous  bivalves,  and  some 
univalve-shells  now  found  on  our  sea  shore  ;  and 
rolled  stones  of  granite  or  gneiss,  with  those  little 
shells  adhering,  which  seamen  call  barnacles*  One 
of  these  wells  is  twenty  miles  from  the  sea  shore, 
and  three  or  four  miles  from  the  nearest  tide-water^ 
above  which,  it  is  elevated  perhaps  seventy  feet." 

Although  the  whole  coast  of  Labrador  was  subject 
to  the  operations  of  this  current  until  it  was  nearly  de- 
prived of  its  soil  ;  yet,  owing  to  the  direction  of  the 
curreut,  and  distance  or  extent  of  country  over  which 
it  had  to  pass,  that  is,  from  the  coast  of  Labrador  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river,  littk  or  no  alluvial 
formation  is  perceivable  until  we  come  to  the  mouth 
of  Connecticut  river,  or  rather  the  east  end  of  Long- 
Island,  which  is  a  little  south  east  of  the  Connecti- 
cut river,  and  is  strictly  alluvial,  a  distance  of  near- 
ly seventeen  degrees  of  longitude  and  about  ten 
of  latitude. 

I  may  here  be  "permitted  to  repeat,  that  as  soon  a? 
the  waters  of  the  ocean  had  risen  to  a  sufficient  height, 
and  the  general  current  had  acquired  a  power,  suffi- 
cient to  check  the  current  of  the  river  St,  Lawrence, 
in  direct  opposition  to  which  it  was  urging  its  force,  a 
new  order  of  things  was  established,  and  a  wonderful 
increase  of  power  added  ;  for  the  waters  of  Baffin's 


and  Hudson's  bay,  overflowing  their  ordinary  limits, 
poured  their  whole  forces  upon  the  great  Lakes,  Su- 
perior, Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  and  Ontario  ;  which, 
being  no  longer  able  to  discharge  themselves  by  the 
St.  Lawrence,  overrun  their  ancient  limits,  and,  being 
at  first  confined  by  the  great  chains  of  mountains, 
spread  destruction  over  the  land,  and  rushed,  with  in- 
conceivable rapidity,  into  the  general  current  of  the 
Atlantic  ocean  and  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  consequence 
was,  that  the  face  of  the  country  being  overflown,  and 
for  a  long  time  saturated  with  water,  and  as  constant- 
ly subjected  to  the  operations  of  an  impetuous  current, 
the  soil  and  earth  were  torn  up,  carried,  and  deposited 
along  upon  the  coast  of  America,  from  Long-Island  to 
the  bottom  of  the  bay  of  Mexico  ;  and  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  country,  as  I  have  before  observed,  over 
which  this  current  passed  5  to  the  quantity  of  soil,  and 
rapidity  of  current,  when  unaltered  or  changed  by  lo- 
cal circumstances,  so  is  the  extent  or  breadth  of 
alluvial  deposites  from  Long  Island  to  the  bay  of 
Mexico. 

For  example,  the  distance  or  extent  of  country 
over  which  this  current  flowed,  from  Sandwich  river 
on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  to  the  latitude  of  Cape  Cod, 
is  about  twelve  degrees  of  latitude.  In  this  distance, 
as  has  been  already  remarked,  there  is  little  or  no 
alluvial  soil  on  the^coast. 

But  in  consequence  of  the  coast  of  Labrador  stretch- 
ing away  north  westwardly,  from  cape  Charles  to  cape 
Chidley,  or  Button  Island,  the  distance  is  greatly  in- 


69 

i Teased  ;  so  that  the  difference  of  latitude  between 
Cape  Chidley  and  New- York,  is  about  29°,  a  difference 
so  great  that  we  need  not  wonder,  when  we  consider 
that  almost  all  the  rivers  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  it  excepted,  flow  in  a  southwardly  direction,  and 
favourable  to  the  current ;  that  wre  should  find  a  por- 
tion of  alluvial  formation  equal,  at  least,  to  the  breadth 
of  the  east  end  of  Long  Island  ;  or  even  the  west  end 
which  is  still  much  broader.  Nor  need  we  wonder  at 
the  increase  of  alluvial  formation  from  New-York  to 
the  bay  of  Delaware,  if  we  admit,  that  by  this  general 
current,  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence  was  inverted,  and 
flowing  upwards  in  the  direction  of  Champlain  and  so 
on,  between  the  chains  of  mountains  into  the  Ocean. 

Nay  more  ;  if  the  alluvial  district,  contained  between 
New-York  and  the  bay  of  Delaware,  could  have 
been  formed  by  a  general  current  flowing  over  the 
face  of  the  country,  from  the  coast  of  Labrador  to  the 
latitude  of  Philadelphia,  which  place  is,  in  fact,  on  the 
southern  border  of  the*  primitive  range,  we  need  not  be 
at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  breadth  of  alluvial  forma- 
tion on  the  coast  of  Florida,  and  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Mississippi  river;  when  the  current  must  have 
necessarily  passed  over  an  extent  of  more  than  50  de- 
grees of  latitude  :  and  also,  a  proportionate  breadth 
of  alluvial  formation  throughout  the  whole  intermedi- 
ate space. 

This  however  will  be  more  fully  comprehended  by 
an  attentive  examination  of  the  map  of  the  United 
States,  including  the  British  possessions  in  North 


70 

America.*  I  shall,  in  the  next  place,  take  notice  of  a 
variety  of  important  facts,  as  related  by  several  travel- 
lers, who  have,  at  different  times,  explored  the  uncul- 
tivated wilds,  as  well  as  the  more  civilized  parts  of 
this  great  continent,  in  order  to  prove,  not  only  the  ex- 
istence of  a  general  current  from  the  north-east  to  the 
south-west,  but  to  see  how  far  they  are  calculated  to 
support  the  opinion,  that  the  north  pole  was  the  great 
focus  whence  issued  this  current,  the  cause  of  so  many 
and  such  stupendous  results. 

I  have  said  that  one  of  the  consequences  of  this  cur- 
tent  was,  the  rending  of  the  soil  from  its  primitive  bed, 
particularly,  where  most  exposed,  and  bearing  it  away, 
leaving  the  rocks  literally  bare. 

Hvriot,  in  his  travels  through  the  Canadas,  speak- 
ing of  Newfoundland,  observes,  "Besides  the  bays 
already  noticed,  this  island  contains  a  variety  of  others, 
particularly  on  the  eastern  coast,  among  which,  two 

*  When  this  work  was  first  announced  to  the  publick,  it  was 
intended  to  have  introduced  several  drawings,  representing  sec- 
tions of  alluvial  districts,  where  the  alluvion  and  other  formations, 
alternate  with  each  other:  and  also,  a  correct  map  of  North  Ame- 
rica, embracing  the  Arctic  sea  and  north  pole,  in  order  to  afford 
the  reader  a  correct  view  of  the  source  and  direction  of  these  sup- 
posed currents,  and  of  the  probable  consequences  :  but  not  having 
received  that  encouragement  and  support,  which  is  indispensably 
requisite  in  such  an  undertaking,  it  became  necessary,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  risk  of  pecuniary  difficulties,  to  pursue,  though  reluctant- 
ly, a  course  more  consistent  with  prudence  and  economy.  Hence 
they  have  been  omitted. 


-   71 

are  remarkable  for  their  extent ;  those  of  Trinity  and 
Conception.  ^Near  the  latter  is  the  harbour  of  St. 
John,  which  is  secure  and  well  fortified,  bordered  by 
dark  and  gloomy  rocks  which  exhibit  a  barren  inhos- 
pitable appearance  :  the  country,  on  a  nearer  view  of 
its  soil,  belies  not  the  character  of  its  rude  uninterest- 
ing features,  which,  amid  their  nakedness,  display 
neither  grandeur  nor  sublimity." — Page  38. 

In  describing  the  country  on  the  north  side  of  the 
river  St.  Lawrence,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  Moisa, 
he  observes,  "  no  country  can  exhibit  a  more  wild  as- 
pect, than  that  which  here  extends  on  either  side  of 
the  river.  Stunted  trees,  rocks  and  sand,  compose 
these  inhospitable  and  desolate  territories,  which  cannot 
bou*t  of  an  acre  of  soil  capable  of  yielding  any  useful 
production." 

The  same  traveller,  in  speaking  of  the  vicinity  of 
Camourasca,  observes,  "  the  sulphurous  springs  found 
here,  and  the  immense  masses  of  broken  rocks  which 
appear  to  have  been  thrown  together  by  some  violent, 
and  uncommon  effort  of  nature,  afford  grounds  for  sup- 
posing that  this  part  of  the  country  has  undergone  ma- 
terial changes." — Page  70. 

In  Mr.  Hearn's  Journey  to  the  Arctic  sea,  and  in 
his  description  of  Marble  island,  on  which  Messrs. 
Knight  and  Barlow  were  lost,  together  with  the  whole 
ship's  crew,  when  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  we  find 
the  following  ;  "  The  figure  head  of  the  ship,  and  also 
the  guns,  &c.  were  sent  home  (England)  to  the  compa- 
ny, and  are  certain  proofs  that  Messrs  Knight  and 


Barlow  had  been  lost  on  that  inhospitable  island, 
where  neither  stick  nor  stump  was  to  be  seen,  and 
which  lies  near  sixteen  miles  from  the  main  land.  In- 
deed the  main  is  little  better,  being  a  jumble  of  bar- 
ren hills  and  rocks,  destitute  of  every  kind  of  her- 
bage except  mo889  $£c.  ;  and,  at  that  part,  the  woods 
are  several  hundred  miles  from  the  sea  side."* 

Further,  "  With  regard  to  that  part  of  my  instruc- 
tions, which  directs  me  to  observe  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  &c.  it  must  be  observed,  that  during  the  whole 
time  of  my  absence  from  the  fort,  1  was  invariably  con- 
fined to  stony  hills  and  barren  plains  all  the  sum- 


In  the  latitude  of  about  68°  north,  longitude  119° 
west  of  London,  they  fell  in  with  the  Stony  Mountains, 
"  And  surely,"  says  Mr.  Hearn,  "  no  part  of  the 
world  better  deserves  that  name.  On  our  first  ap- 
proaching these  mountains,  they  appeared  to  be  a 
confused  heap  of  stones,  utterly  inaccessible  to  the 
foot  of  man." 

And  of  the  face  of  the  whole  country,  inhabited  by 
what  are  called  the  northern  indians,  he  says,  "  The 
tract  of  land  inhabited  by  the  northern  indians  is  very 
extensive,  reaching  from  the  fifty  ninth  to  the  sixty 
eighth  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  from  east  to  west  is 
upwards  of  five  hundred  miles  wide.  It  is  bounded  by 
Churchill  river  on  the  south,  Athapusean  Indians' 
country  on  the  west  ;  the  Dog-ribbed  and  Copper  In- 

*  Hearn's  Journey,  Introduction  page  xxix.        f  Page  xviii. 


73 

dians'  country  on  the  north  ;  and  by  Hudson's  bay  on 
the  east.  The  land  throughout  that  whole  tract  of  coun- 
try is  scarcely  any  thing,  but  one  solid  mass  of  rocks 
and  stones,  and,  in  most  parts  very  hilly,  particular- 
ly to  the  westward."*  &c. 

Mr.  Me  R'enzie  (in  his  travels,  or  voyages)  speaking 
of  Turtle  portage,  and  lake  of  that  name  observes,  "  At 
the  first  vase  from  whence  to  the  great  river,  the  coun- 
try has  the  appearance  of  having  been  overrun  by  fire, 
and  consists  in  general  of  huge  rocky  hills ."f 

In  describing  the  French  river,  which  discharges 
itself  into  Lake  Huron,  he  says,  "  There  is  hardly  a 
foot  of  soil  to  be  seen  from  one  end  of  the  French  river 
to  the  other  ;  its  banks  consisting  of  hills  of  entire  rock. 
The  coast  of  the  lake  is  the  same  but  lower."J 

In  describing  Lake  Superiour  he  says,  "  Along  its 
north  shore,  is  the  safest  navigation,  as  it  is  a  continued 
mountainous  embankment  of  rock  from  three  hundred 
to  one  thousand  jive  hundred  feet  high." 

The  face  of  the  country  (on  Lake  Superiour)  offers 
a  wild  scene  of  huge  hills  and  rocks,  separated  by 
stony  vallies,  lakes,  and  ponds."§ 

At  page  61  he  observes,  "  This  lake  (Winipic)  in 
common  with  those  of  this  country,  are  bounded  with 
black  and  grey  rocks." 

After  giving  a  general  view  of  the  regions  to  the 
north  and  east  of  the  lakes,  he*  observes;  "  Of  this 

*  Hearn's  Journey,  page  227.    t  McKenzie's  Travels,  pa^e  36. 

t  McKenzie's  Travels,  page  37.  §  Page  49. 

11 


74 

great  tract  more  than  half  is  represented  as  barren  and 
broken  ;  displaying  a  surface  of  rock  and  fresh  water 
lakes,  with  a  very  scattered  and  scanty  proportion  of 
soil.  Such  is  the  whole  coast  of  Labrador  and  the  land 
called  east  main,  to  the  west  of  the  heights  which  di- 
vide the  waters  running  into  the  river  and  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  from  those  flowing  into  Hudson's  bay.  It 
is,  consequently  inhabited,  only  by  savages,  whose 
numbers  are  proportioned  to  the  scantiness  of  the  soil ; 
nor  is  it  probable,  from  the  same  cause,  that  they  will 
increase."* 

And  further  "  the  proportion  of  it  (the  soil)  that  is 
fit  for  cultivation,  is  very  small,  and  is  still  less  in  the 
interiour  parts  ;  it  is  also  very  difficult  of  access  ;  and 
whilst  any  land  remains  uncultivated  to  the  south  of 
it,  there  will  be  no  temptation  to  settle  it." 

Capt.  Cook,  when  endeavouring  to  find  a  north 
west  passage,  observes  "  that  the  appearance  of  the 
country,  (North  America)  in  latitude  57°  3'  north,  dis- 
covered little  else  than  naked  rocks."^ 

He  likewise  observes  that  the  barren  isles  in  la- 
titude f>9  degrees  north,  are  composed  of  naked 
rocks.  { 

Many  parts,  both  of  Europe  and  Asia,  in  those  la- 
titudes discover  the  same  inhospitable  aspect,  and 
which  are  mentioned  by  several  travellers,  particu- 
larly, Wraxall,  who  in  his  Description  of  Stockholm, 

*  Ream's  Journey,  p.  426,      f  Cooke's  Voyages,  vol.  II.  p.  186< 
\  Vol.  II.  page  193. 


75 

observes,  "  Agriculture  cannot  exert  her  powers,  not 
labour  produce  harvests,  where  nature  has  denied  the 
means.  The  eye  discovers  nothing  on  every  side  ex- 
cept firs  and  rugged  rocks  ;  and  it  would  seem  as  if 
famine  had  here  fixed  her  eternal  residence. 

"  There  is  somewhat  uncommonly  savage  and  in- 
hospitable in  the  whole  circumjacent  country  here. 
Even  in  this  lovely  season,  when  all  animate  and  in- 
animate nature  wakes  from  the  long  slumber  of  a  po- 
lar winter,  every  thing  is  joyless  and  unfertile,  and 
the  rays  of  the  sun  are  reflected  from  the  expanse  of 
stone  that  invests  the  city  round  on  every  side,  and 
from  whose  bosom  no  verdure  springs  to  regale  the 
eye."* 

To  what,  let  me  ask,  shall  we  attribute  the  deficien- 
cy of  soil  throughout  these  gloomy  and  inhospitable 
regions?  Or  why  this  almost  uniform  barrenness,  and 
even  repulsive  sterrility  and  naked  rocks,  throughout 
almost  all  the  high  northern  latitudes  of  North  Ame- 
rica, and  even  of  Europe  and  Asia  ?f  Were  they  ne- 
ver covered  with  soil  like  other  parts  of  the  world  ? 
doubtless  they  were.  Or,  if  they  have  once  experienc- 
ed the  unappeased  wrath,  the  eternal  denunciations  of 
an  offended  God,  why  have  not  the  different  portions 
of  the  globe,  in  a  more  southern  latitude,  experienced 
it  in  like  manner  ?  It  will  be  said,  perhaps,  that  they 
have  in  a  considerable  degree.  In  reply  to  this,  it 
may  be  observed  that  if  there  are  a  few  solitary  in- 

*  Wraxall's  Travels.       t  Wraxall's  Description  of  Sweden, 


76 

stances  of  this  kind,  they  bear  no  proportion,  in  point 
of  extent  and  magnitude,  to  those  under  considera- 
tion. 

It  would  appear,  that  nothing  but  the  constant  and 
irresistible  force  of  a  general  current,  and  that  too 
issuing  from  the  pole,  could  have  produced  such  pal- 
pable results.  This  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the 
following  circumstances. 

Mr.  Clinton,  in  a  work  that  I  have  already  men- 
tioned, has  taken  notice  of  several  very  interesting 
geological  facts,  which  are  so  intimately  connected 
with  my  present  view  of  the  subject,  that  I  shall  glad- 
ly make  use  of  them,  as  being,  perhaps,  the  most  au- 
thentick  and  correct  that  have  been  given  us  by  any 
historian  or  traveller. 

He  observes,*  "The  appearance  of  the  lands  be- 
longing to  the  Holland  company,  particularly  from  Ba- 
tavia  to  lake  Erie,  furnishes  strong  indications  of  the 
recession  of  that  lake.  Near  Vandeventer's  tavern, 
in  ]N  iagara  county,  about  twenty- two  miles  from  the 
lake,  there  is  a  perpendicular  descent  which  is  said 
to  extend  from  the  Genesee  river  to  Black  Rock  ;  be- 
tween it  and  the  stony  ridge,  which  runs  from  the  Ge- 
nesee  river  to  Lewistown,  there  is  an  immense  valley 
twenty  miles  across,  called  Tonewanto  valley.  The 
precipice  at  Vandeventer's  is  from  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred  feet.  u  The  distance,  or  extent  of  this  ridge, 

*  In  note  7th,  page  51,  of  his  Introductory  Lecture  to  the  Lit- 
erary and  Philosophical  Society. 


77 

from  east  to  west,  is  about  78  miles."  And  further, 
"  Its  general  altitude  above  the  neighbouring  land  is 
thirty  feet,  and  its  width  varies  considerably ;  in 
some  places  it  is  not  more  than  forty  yards  ;  its  ele- 
vation above  the  level  of  lake  Ontario  is  perhaps  136 
feet,  to  which  it  descends  by  a  gradual  slope,  and  its 
distance  from  that  water,  is  between  six  and  ten  miles. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  this  remarkable 
ridge  was  the  ancient  boundary  of  this  great  lake." 

Of  this  latter  remark  there  can  be  no  doubt.  But 
before  I  proceed  to  make  any  comments  on  the  above 
quotations,  I  shall  otter  a  few  remarks  on  the  subject 
of  lake  Ontario. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

IT  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Clinton  did  not, 
(or  could  not  consistent  with  his  plan,)  give  us  a  more 
general  description  of  this  interesting  lake;  for  the 
want  of  which,  I  am  obliged  to  depend  on  verbal, 
though  respectable  information  from  several  sources. 
That  is,  that  the  alluvions  formations  on  Lake  Ontario, 
are  by  far  the  greatest,  or  most  extensive  on  the  north 
side  of  the  lake.  That  it  extends  from  near  the 
western  part  of  the  lake,  northwardly,  almost  to  Lake 
Nipisin  ;  from  thence  north-eastwardly  embracing  the 
river  U  taw  as,  and  a  part  of  the  country  of  the  an- 
cient Algonquins ;  thence  south-eastwardly  taking  in 
Mont-real. 

Whether  this  be  true  or  not,  Mr.  Heriot  says, 
"  The  land  on  the  north  east  coast  of  Lake  Ontario 
is  low  and,  in  some  situations,  marshy/'  therefore, 
doubtless  composed  of  alluvion. 

With  respect  to  the  alluvions  formation  on  the  south 
side  of  Lake  Ontario,  Mr.  Clinton  observes,  "  These 
facts  evince,  beyond  doubt,  that  Lake  Ontario  has  re- 
ceded from  this  elevated  ground ;  and  the  cause  of 
this  retreat,  must  be  ascribed  to  its  having  enlarged  its 
former  outlet. "  A.  similar  opinion  is  likewise  enter- 
tained of  the  north  east  shore  of  Lake  Erie  :  but  are 


79 

there  corresponding  appearances  of  a  recession  in 
other  parts  oi  these  lakes?  Is  there  a  like  quantity  of 
alluvions  formation  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Ontario  ? 
On  the  northern  shore,  and  west  end  of  Lake  Erie  ? 
Or  in  fact,  are  similar  districts  to  be  found  on  the 
shores  of  Lakes  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Superiour  ?  I 
believe  not;  and  if  so,  or  indeed,  if  there  are  not 
corresponding  appearances  on  the  shores  generally,  of 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  with  the  exception  of  rocky 
or  mountainous  districts,  we  cannot  with  propriety  con- 
sider those  two  cases  as  actual  proofs  of  a  recession, 
exsicc-ition,  or  wasting  away  of  the  lakes  ;  on  the  con- 
trary ,  it  is  rather  an  encroachment  of  the  land,  upon 
the  water ;  and  since  there  are  not  similar  districts  on 
the  other  great  lakes,  whose  superficies  are  not  only 
equal  but  much  greater,  regulated  by  the  same  laws, 
and  subject  to  the  same  operations,  it  seems  necessary 
to  look  to  some  other  source  for  the  cause  of  appear- 
ances so  interesting,  and  peculiar  to  these  two  lakes. 

Admitting  then  the  existence  of  a  general  current 
setting  across  the  continent  from  north  and  east,  to  south 
and  west,  the  problem  is  easily  solved ;  for  while  the 
current  was  flowing  in  direct  opposition  to  that  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  it  was  likewise  flowing  in  a  southwest- 
erly direction  across  the  East  Main  and  coast  of 
Labrador,  from  Cape  Chidley  almost  in  a  line  with 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  elevating  the  soil  in  its 
course  and  depositing  it  on  their  shores,  the  same  as 
is  deposited  on  our  sea  coast. 


80 

But  it  will  be  asked,  why  is  not  the  same  effect  pro- 
duced on  the  shores  of  Lakes  Huron,  Michigan,  and 
particularly  Superiour,  whose  northern  shore  Mr. 
McICenzie  tells  us,  "  is  a  continued  mountainous  em- 
bankment of  rock,  from  three  hundred,  to  one  thou- 
sand five  hundred  feet  high." 

In  reply,  I  have  remarked  that  in  proportion  to  the 
extent  of  country  or  superficies  over  which  this  cur- 
rent had  to  pass,  so  will  be  the  extent  and  breadth  of 
alluvious  deposites  both  on  lakes  as  well  as  seas.  And 
this,  I  think,  is  fully  verified  in  the  present  case ;  for 
the  distance  from  Hudson's  bay,  or  the  southern  part 
called  James'  bay,  across  to  Lake  Superiour  in  a 
south-westerly  direction,  is  but  about  five  degrees ; 
while  that  from  Cape  Chidley  to  Lake  Ontario  is 
about  twenty  degrees  ;  and  more  than  half  of  this 
immense  district  Mr.  McKenzie  tells  us  "  is  destitute 
of  soil,  presenting  nothing  but  enormous  rocks." 

Admitting  that  this  country  was  once  covered  with 
soil,  though  in  a  sparing  degree,  need  we  be  surprised 
that  a  small  quantity  of  alluvial  deposite  should  be 
formed  on  the  shores  of  Ontario  and  a  part  of  Erie  ? 
Nay,  admitting  the  truth  of  this  position,  and  that  the 
space  between  the  Alleghany  Ridge  and  Rocky 
Mountains,  to  have  been  once  an  inland  sea  like  that 
of  the  Red  Sea ;  need  we  wonder  that  it  should  be 
filled  up ;  while  an  impetuous  current  was  tearing  up 
the  soil,  and  sweeping  it  over  a  surface  extending 
from  the  Arctic  sea,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri 
river,  a  distance  equal  to  about  40  degrees  of  lati- 


81 

tade  ?  Need  we  wonder  that  this  space,  now  rich  in 
cultivation,  should  abound  with  the  remains  of  nume- 
rous and  varied  species  of  shell  fish,  while  those  im- 
mense focusses,  Hudson's  Bay,  Lakes  Superiour, 
Michigan,  Huron,  Erie,  Ontario,  and  many  others 
were  yielding  up  their  treasures  to  the  impetuosity  of 
a  resistless  current,  to  mingle  in  promiscuous  ruin,  and 
be  swept  across  the  country  and  deposited  in  this,  now 
extinct  sea  ?  Indeed,  in  this  view,  it  appears  by  no 
means  problematical. 

But  to  return  to  Lake  Ontario.  Not  only  does  the- 
extent  of  country  over  which  this  supposed  current 
must  have  run;  and  the  proportionate  alluvial  deposite 
on  the  shores  of  Ontario,  favour  the  opinion  that  these 
deposites  were  actually  occasioned  by  this  cause  only  ; 
but  there  are  others  of  equal,  if  not  more  importance 
in  support  of  this  hypothesis. 

Mr.  Clinton  observes,  when  describing  the  ridge  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  that 
"  The  gravel  with  which  it  is  covered  was  deposited 
there  by  the  waters,  and  the  stones  every  where  indi- 
cate, by  their  shape,  the  abrasion  and  agitation  pro- 
duced by  that  element.  All  along  the  borders  of  the 
western  rivers  and  lakes,  there  are  small  mounds,  or 
heaps  of  gravel  of  a  conical  form  erected  by  the  fish 
(it  is  said)  for  the  protection  of  their  spawn  ;  these 
fish  banks  are  found  at  the  foot  of  the  ridge  on  the  side 
towards  the  lake  :  on  the  opposite  aide  none  have  been 
discovered.-' 

12 


Here,  I  am  at  a  loss  to  determine,  whether  Mr.  C. 
meant  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  or  the 
opposite  side  of  the  ridge.  But  it  is  of  little  importance 
which  of  the  two  was  intended,  since  I  will  venture  to 
question,  whether  there  is  a  single  instance  of  these 
fish-mounds  to  be  found  on  the  northern  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario,  either  above,  or  beneath  the  water. 

These  water-worn  stones  or  pebbles,  I  have  before 
remarked,  were,  probably,  formed  in  the  course  of 
ages,  by  the  currents  of  rivers,  and  carried  down 
their  streams  and  spread  over  the  beds  of  those  rivers 
in  immense  quantities,  as  is  the  case  at  this  day,  in  a 
thousand  instances. 

Such  was  probably  the  case  with  Ontario ;  and  as 
soon  as  the  general  current  had  acquired  sufficient 
velocity  and  power,  they  were  elevated  from  the  bot- 
tom and  deposited  with  the  alluvion  on  the  shores,  be- 
cause the  ridge,  or  bank  of  any  river,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  being  higher  than  the  waters,  they  were 
obstructed  in  their  course,  and  consequently  deposited 
with  the  sand  and  gravel,  the  latter  of  which,  in  the 
present  instance,  were  subsequently  collected  together 
into  heaps  by  the  fishes  of  some  kind  or  other. 

Such  is  precisely  the  case  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Connecticut  river,  for  the  distance  of  about  three  or 
four  miles  below  tlje  Falls,  where  there  are  hundreds 
of  these  mounds,  of  a  low  pyramidal  form,  from  the 
size  or  quantity  of  half  a  bushel,  to  that  of  eight  or  ten 
bushels,  and  what  is  no  less  extraordinary  than  fa- 
vourable to  my  hypothesis,  is,  that  not  one  single  in- 


88 

stance  of  the  kind  has,  I  believe,  ever  been  found  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  that  river. 

The  same  may  be  observed  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Susquehannah,  from  six  to  ten  miles  above  tide  water.* 

A  similar  fact  is  likewise  mentioned  by  Mr.  Bar- 
tram,  as  existing  on  the  shores  of  Broad  river,  which 
discharges  its  waters  into  that  of  the  Savanna.  "  The 
waters  at  this  place/'  he  says,  "  were  still  and  shoal, 
and  flowed  over  a  bed  of  gravel  just  beneath  a  rocky 
rapid  ;  in  this  eddy  shoal  were  a  number  of  little  gra- 
velly pyramidal  hills,  whose  summits  rose  almost  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  very  artfully  constructed  by 
a  species  of  Cray  fish,  (cancer  macrourus)  which  inha- 
bited them."f 

These  are  not  the  only  circumstances  which  Mr.  C. 
mentions,  that  are  favourable  to  my  views  of  this  sub- 
ject, exclusive  of  which,  I  could  adduce  numerous 
other  cases  equally  favourable  to  the  opinion ;  but  one 
or  two  of  which,  I  shall  mention  in  the  present  in- 
stance. 

I  have  been  informed  by  a  gentleman  of  respectabi- 
lity, who  was  a  witness  to  the  fact,  that  while  the  Bri- 
tsih  were  employed  in  erecting  a  fort  at  Kingston,  on 
lake  Ontario,  in  1814,  they  discovered,  at  the  depth  of 
fifteen  feet  below  the  surface,  a  variety  of  seeds  lying 

*  For  this  fact,  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  R.  W.  Hall,  who  fur- 
ther observes,  "  The  fishes  which  form  these  mounds,  are  a  specieg 
of  small  mullet  or  gudgeon.  They  elevate  the  stones  by  suction, 
and  deposite  them  on  the  mound,  as  I  have  often  seen." 

t  Bartrain's  Travels,  page  43. 


84 

in  the  earthy  veins  between  the  strata  of  lime  stone 
rock  ;  and  in  which  they  had  doubtless  lain  for  many 
ages,  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation,  so  much  so 
as  to  have  subsequently  produced  entire  and  perfect 
plants  of  their  several  kinds.  Among  these  are  the 
Areca  Cispitosa,  Poa  Alp  ma,  Poa  Quinquefida,  Uniola 
Gracilis;  Festuca  not  described;  Arundo  Canadeusis; 
Elymus  Canadensis,  and  a  Cerex,  resembling,  Kra- 
seri.  These  plants  are  completely  alpine,  and  are 
peculiar  to  the  mountains  to  the  northward  of  the 
lakes.* 

To  what  shall  we  attribute  these  singular  phenome- 
na, but  to  the  agency  of  a  general  current  setting  from 
the  northward  in  a  south  westerly  direction?  We 

*  The  circumstance  of  seeds  having  been  found  deposited  be- 
tween the  strata  of  lime  stone,  may,  with  some,  appear  doubtful. 
But  it  must  be  recollected,  that  the  lime  stone  spoken  of  in  the 
present  instance,  is  secondary  ;  and  that  it  is  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon to  find  organick  remains  in  similar  situations,  particularly  those 
of  vegetables. 

Patrin  speaks  of  a  variety  that  is  found  in  the  secondary  slate, 
and  about  the  coal  mines  in  the  environs  of  St.  Etienne.  He  has 
also  given  a  very  accurate  representation  of  a  specimen  containing 
five  different  impressions  of  vegetables.  Among  which  are  the 
seeds,  or,  in  his  own  words,  «*  the  fruit  which  has  always  been 
considered  as  resembling  the  grains  of  coffee,  and  which  in  gene- 
ral is  true.  I  have  found  specimens  still  surrounded  with  their 
membranes,  and  it  appears  that  it  is  the  fruit  of  an  umbelliferous 
plant,  perhaps  of  a  Thapsie." 

In  the  same  specimen  is  likewise  represented  a  remarkable 
Polypodium,  "  resembling  the  Polypodium  Unitum  of  the  Isle  of 
France,"  and  still  bearing  its  fruit  or  seeds  in  fine  preservation. 


85 

can  easily  conceive  how  seeds  are  transported  to  a 
great  distance  from  the  place  of  their  growth,  by 
winds,  and  currents  of  rivers,  in  which  case  they  are 
soon  after  destroyed,  or  vegetate  anew.  But  in  this 
instance,  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  determine  with  certain- 
ty, how  these  different  seeds  were  transported  from  a 
distance,  precipitated,  or  deposited,  and  preserved  in 
a  mass  that  must  have,  subsequently,  become  carbo- 
nate of  lime,  unless  we  admit  that  they  were  sudden- 
ly transported  in  troubled  waters,  saturated  with  earth, 
as  suddenly  deposited  at  that  point,  perhaps  by  some 
whirlpool  or  eddy,  and  the  superincumbent  mass  as 
suddenly  changed  into  lime- stone. 

It  is  not  only  necessary  that  these  seeds  should  be 
suddenly  transported,  deposited  and  fixed  in  their 
gangue,  if  I  may  so  call  it,  but  it  is, indispensably  ne- 
cessary that  it  should  have  taken  place  in  the  autumn 
or  winter  immediately  after  their  growth  or  maturity; 
and  that  too,  when  both  the  air  and  water  were  at  such 
a  state  of  temperature,  as  to  be  totally  unfavourable  to 
vegetation ;  otherwise,  these  seeds  must  have  germi- 
nated, and  consequently  have  been  destroyed.  Ad- 

The  same  specimen  also  contains  a  fruit,  which  is  considered  as 
that  of  an  exotick  plant)  and  on  the  subject  of  which  Patrin  ob- 
serves, "The  learned  Jussieu  has  in  possession  numerous  exam- 
ples, (of  the  kind,)  very  well  characterised  ;  but  he  has  declared 
that  he  knows  not  to  what  genus  it  belongs." — See  Patrin's  Natu- 
ral History  of  Minerals,  Tome  5,  page  326  and  7;  and  also  Phil- 
lip's Description  of  Organick  Remains  in  the  Island  of  Sheppey. 
Outline  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  page  96. 


86 

mitting  this  fact,  and  that  they  were  transported  by  a 
current  flowing  from  the  north,  it  may  have  been  the 
result  of  the  general  deluge,  which,  according  to  the 
author  whom  1  have  already  quoted  (St.  Pierre )  hap- 
pened in  the  month  of  February  and  March.     If  this 
circumstance  be  true,  it  will  enable  us  to  determine, 
why  the  seeds  were  preserved  from   germinating  or 
perishing,  and  also,  why  those  immense  masses  of  gra- 
nite, mentioned  by  Mr.  Drake  in  his  Picture  of  Cincin- 
nati,   should  be  found  upon  an  alluvial  soil,  at  least 
one   hundred    leagues   from  the   nearest   granite,    in 
place,  on  the  north  5   and  perhaps  one  thousand  leagues 
from  the  nearest  on  the  south ;  for  it  is  well  known, 
that  large  masses  of  rocks  of  different  kinds  are  often 
enveloped  in  ice,  and,   by  the  freshes  of  rivers  or  tides 
of  the  sea,  are  raised  and  transported  to  a  great  dis- 
tance, before  they  are  disengaged.     This  circumstance 
has  been  taken  notice  of  by  several  writers. 

Tilloch  has  observed  that  masses  of  stone  are  some- 
times transported  by  cakes  of  ice,  in  which  they  hap- 
pen to  be  enveloped ;  a  circumstance  equally  as  probable 
as  that  of  huge  animals  being  transported,  to  a  great 
distance,  upon  masses  of  floating  ice,  which  frequently 
occurs.  The  great  White  Bear,  from  the  arctic  re- 
gions, and  also  the  White  Fox,  are  annually  brought 
from  the  northern  coast  of  Greenland  by  these  means, 
and  cast  upon  the  coast  of  Iceland,  to  the  great  annoy- 
ance of  the  inhabitants.*  While  this  circumstance 

*  See  Troils's  Description  of  Iceland. 


goes  far  to  prove,  that  those  enormous  islands  of  ice 
were  formed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  some  continent, 
or  island,  it  heightens  the  probability  that  they  might 
at  the  some  time  contain  vast  fragments  of  rocks. 

Mr.  Bakewell,  in  his  introduction  to  geology,  (page 
55 J  makes  the  following  remarks,  "  Vast  masses  of 
rock  near  the  sea  shore,  are  sometimes  enveloped  in 
fields  of  ice,  and  raised  up  and  transported  to  distant 
countries.  Ice  is  specifically  lighter  than  water  ;  eve- 
ry cubic  yard  will  support  a  stone  of  one  hundred 
pounds  weight :  hence  we  need  not  be  surprised  at  the 
insulated  rocks  of  granite,  that  are  sometimes  found  in 
situations  far  remote  from  primary  mountains.  These 
blocks  have  been  floated  over  the  ocean,  and  their  angu- 
lar points  and  edges  defended  from  attrition  during 
their  passage,  by  the  surrounding  ice.  In  this  manner 
large  fragments  of  granite,  and  other  primary  rocks, 
may  have  been  brought  upon  our  coast  (England) 
from  Norway  and  Greenland/' 

The  truth  of  Mr.  EakewelVs  opinion  is  strongly 
corroborated  by  the  following  fact  to  which  1  was 
an  eye  witness.  In  the  winter  of  1780,  well  known 
for  being  one  of  the  severest  ever  experienced  in  this 
country,  the  ice  in  the  Connecticut  river  was  increased 
to  a  great  thickness  and  solidity  :  In  many  instances, 
the  water  in  the  river  was  literally  frozen  to  the  bot- 
tom. In  the  month  of  January,  as  usual,  there  came 
a  great  and  sudden  thaw,  accompanied  with  incessant 
torrents  of  rain,  which  appeared  to  spread  over  an  im- 
nense  extent  of  country.  The  consequences  were  such 


88 

as  might  be  expected  ;  the  snow  which  was  over  five 
feet  deep,  was  quickly  melted ;  every  stream  as  sud- 
denly became  a  river  ;  and  every  river  threatened  to 
become  an  ocean.  The  Connecticut  river  was  very 
soon  raised  almost  to  a  level  with  its  banks,  and  the 
ice  which  was  two  and  a  half  feet  thick,  was  borne 
away  by  the  current  in  the  most  terrifick  majesty  ;  for 
wherever  it  was  impeded  in  its  progress,  by  an  island, 
or  the  narrowing  of  the  shores  of  the  river,  it  was 
broken  up,  and  immense  masses  raised  into  the  air, 
until  their  elevated  positions,  preponderating  over 
their  floating  foundations,  were  left  to  fall  on  the  sur- 
rounding ice  with  a  report,  equal  in  some  instances  to 
that  of  small  pieces  of  ordnance. 

This  scene  of  awful  grandeur  was  extended  for 
miles  to  the  north  and  south,  and  while  thousands 
were  contemplating  the  frightful  spectacle,  the  ice, 
being  very  solid,  and  hurried  on  by  a  powerful  cur- 
rent, became  obstructed  at  the  mouth  of  the  straits 
twenty-five  miles  below  near  Middletown,  and  the 
whole  force  of  the  river  for  a  short  time  was  impeded  : 
the  water  set  back  and  upwards,  and  enormous  masses 
of  ice  were  hurried  over  the  banks  of  the  river,  into 
the  creeks  and  larger  streams  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  river,  Lito  the  meadows  and  low 
grounds  :  when  on  a  sudden,  from  the  pressure  above, 
the  obstruction  at  the  straits  gave  way,  and  this  threat- 
ening appearance  almost  in  a  minute  vanished :  the 
water  fell  to  its  natual  state,  and  left  huge  masses  of 
transparent  ice  in.  the  meadows  and  intervales,  to  be 


89 

removed  only  by  the  powerful  influence  of  a  summer's 
sun.  When  this  was  accomplished  in  the  following 
season,  large  pieces  of  rocks  and  heaps  of  rolled 
pebbles  were  left  exposed  to  view  on  an  alluvial  sur- 
face, on  which,  before,  a  stone  could  not  be  found  for 
its  weight  in  gold.  These  rocks  and  stones  from  their 
characters,  were  known  to  be  the  same  as  those  which 
composed  the  bed  of  the  river  many  leagues  above. 

Those  masses  of  granite  mentioned  by  Mr.  DraJce^ 
have  been  a  subject  of  wonder  and  surprise  with 
many,  and,  in  this  instance,  well  may  they  excite  a 
degree  of  curiosity :  not  because  we  see  masses  of 
primitive  rocks  entirely  out  of  place,  as  in  alluvial 
formations ;  or  at  a  great  distance  from  where  they 
were  probably  formed.  This  is  by  no  means  an  un- 
common occurrence*  We  see  them  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States  5*  numerous  instances  of  the  kind 


*  But  a  few  years  since,  in  digging  away,  and  levelling  the  road 
in  the  town  of  Windsor,  in  Connecticut,  and  at  the  distance  of 
nine  miles  from  Hartford,  a  part  of  a  rock  was  uncovered,  which, 
from  its  apparent  size,  it  was  found  necessary  to  remove.  This 
was  accomplished,  and  it  still  remains  in  the  highway.  It  is  of 
granite  of  an  unusual  kind  :  the  quartz  and  felspar  are  in  fine 
grains,  with  a  proportion  of  black  hornhlend  ;  the  whole  intermixed 
with  small  irregular  and  isolated  masses  of  black  mica.  Its  weight 
may  be  one  ton,  or  a  ton  and  a  half.  Its  form  is  more  singular, 
perhaps  than  its  composition,  being  of  two  irregular  masses  joined 
by  a  kind  of  neck,  the  curve  of  which  has  the  appearance  of  having 
been  hollowed  out  on  two  sides  by  the  operations  of  running 

waters,  giving  it  the  shape  and  resemblance  of  what  are  considered 

13 


90 

are  likewise  to  be  seen,  in  various  parts  of  Europe., 
particularly  in  mountainous  districts. 

Palassau,  in  his  geological  description  of  the  Py- 
rennees,  observes,  that  immense  boulders  of  granite, 

Indian  idols  or  gods.  The  base  or  body  of  the  rock,  is  perhaps 
four  times  as  large  as  the  apex  or  head. 

In  the  same  town,  and  in  the  parish  of  Wintonbury,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  seven  miles  in  a  S.  W.  direction  from  this  rock,  is  another 
of  the  same  kind  of  granite,  and  of  nearly  the  same  form  and 
diaiensions.  It  stands  at  the  end  of  a  horse  shed,  near  a  publick 
Inn,  kept  by  a  Mr.  Roberts;  and  serves  as  a  substitute  for  steps,  to 
assist  in  mounting  on  horseback. 

I  have  been  thus  particular  in  pointing  out  and  describing  these 
two  rock?,  for  the  following  reasons. 

The  first  mentioned  rock  was  found  at  the  distance  of  half  a 
mile  west  of  the  Connecticut  river,  in  the  second  plain  or  bank, 
which  is  perfectly  alluvial. 

The  second  stands,  at  present,  about  seven  miles  west  of  the 
Connecticut  river  on  what  may  be  considered  the  third  plain  or 
bank  of  the  same  river,  being  considerably  higher  than  the  first  and 
second,  and  commencing  upon  the  latter  with  a  quick  ascent,  and  is 
likewise  perfectly  alluvial. 

That  these  two  masses  were  never  formed  where  they  now  are, 
is  as  certain  as  that  they  now  exist ;  for  not  a  rock  of  the  kind  is 
to  be  found,  in  place,  for  many  leagues  distant. 

The  nearest  granite  to  the  east,  is  on  the  range  called  the  east 
mountains,  and  is  distant  twelve  miles,  with  the  Connecticut  river 
intervening.  The  nearest  in  a  north  direction,  is  in  the  state  of 
Massachusetts,  distant  from  thirty -five  to  forty  miles.  The  nearest 
on  the  south,  nearly  the  same.  On  the  west,  no  granite  occurs  of 
any  kind  within  the  distance  of  twelve  or  fifteen  miles,  with  the 
range  of  West  Mountains  intervening,  which  is  entirely  of  a 
secondary  formation. 


91 

limestone,  and  other  rocks,  are  frequently  torn  from 
the  sides  of  those  mountains,  and  carried  to  a  great 
distance  into  the  low  grounds,  by  the  resistless  torrents 
of  water  that  often  rush  from  the  steep  and  awful  pre- 
cipicies  of  those  stupendous  snow-capped  heights. 

This  will  not  appear  strange  when  we  learn  from  the 
same  author,  that  whole  villages  are  sometimes  swept 

Hence,  the  fair  and  unequivocal  conclusion  is,  that  they  must  have 
been  brought  from  some  unknown  point  or  place  to  the  northward, 
by  currents  of  water,  and  deposited  where  they  are  ;  and  that  too, 
most  probably,  enclosed  in  ice  :  for  such  is  their  form  that  if  em- 
braced in  a  mass  of  ice  of  sufficient  size,  and  elevated  from  the 
earth  by  water,  they  might  be  floated  over  the  ocean  without  the 
chance  of  escape,  except  by  the  melting  of  the  ice. 

Cases  of  a  similar  kind  occur  elsewhere,  as  will  appear  by  the  fol- 
lowing extract  of  a  letter  from  Professor  Cooper : — "  The  shore  of 
the  north  east  bank  of  Susqueliannah,  from  Wilksbarre  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, down  to  Sunbury,  is,  or  a  few  years  ago  was,  abundant  in 
sienitic  rolled  pebbles,  from  the  size  of  a  man's  head  to  the  size  of  a 
marble;  red  felspar,  hornblend,  and  quartz;  felspar  and  quartz; 
fe.spar  and  hornblend  ;  quartz  and  hornblend.  1  know  of  no 
sienitic  formation  in  the  vicinity  :  the  nearest  I  have  heard  of  from 
Col.  Gibbs  and  Mr.  McClure,  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  George, 
and  to  the  eastward  of  it.  These  are  annually  shifting  their  places, 
being  enveloped  with  ice,  which  when  it  is  deposited  on  the  shores 
lower  down,  the  ice  melts  and  leaves  the  stones.  I  have  traced 
them  from  Wilksbarre  as  low  down  as  Sunbury  and  even  Harris- 
burgh." 

By  what  possible  means,  I  would  ask,  were  these  stones,  (of 
which  there  can  be  no  mistake,  for  I  have  seen  and  examined  them) 
brought  from  Lake  George  over  land  to  Wilksbarre,  except  by  a 
current  setting  from  the  north  east,  which  is  precisely  the  direction 
from  the  one  to  the  other  of  these  two  places  ? 


98 

away,  at  the  foot  of  those  mountains  by  those  dreadful 
torrents.  These  rocks  not  only  prevail  in  numerous 
places  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  on  the  side  of 
France,  but  also  on  that  of  Spain. 

Blocks  of  granite  are  found  in  the  beds  of  some  of 
the  rivers,  in  the  north  west  part  of  Yorkshire,  and  in 
the  clay  pits  in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  at  a  great 
distance  from  any  granitic  mountain.* 

In  the  Baltic  are  a  number  of  islands  formed  by 
alluvion,  and  in  which  are  masses  of  primordial  rocks 
of  granite,  brought,  no  doubt,  by  ice  which  was 
driven  by  the  currents  and  lodged  upon  these  is- 
lands. 

"  The  Danish  islands  in  the  Archipelago  are  Fu- 
nen,  Zeeland,  and  some  small  islands  in  the  Kategate, 
named  Lenoe,  Anholt,  and  Samsoe.  These  are  prin- 
cipally composed  of  zeest,  or  alluvion,  and  in  these 
are  found  gravel  and  blocks  of  granite.vf 

"  Fanoe,  Rom,  Sylt,  and  Amrom,  were  originally 
islands  of  the  same  nature  as  the  neighbouring  conti- 
nent, but  have  been  since  extended  by  marshes  or  al- 
luvion. These  islands  also  contain  gravel  and  blocks 
of  primordial  stones.  "J 

"  The  shallow  bottom  between  the  island  of  Sylt^ 
and  that  of  Fora,  is  alluvial,  and  there  are  found  on  it 
gravel  and  blocks  of  granite,»§ 

*  See  Bakewell's  Introduction  to  Geology,  page  80. 

t  See  Jameson's  Notes  on  Cuvier,  page  202,        J  Page  204. 

§  Page  205. 


93 

Cumer  observes,  that  "  In  some  countries,  we  find 
numerous,  and  prodigiously  large  blocks  of  primitive 
substances  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  secondary 
strata,  and  separated  by  deep  vallies,  from  the  peaks 
or  ridges,  whence  these  blocks  must  have  been  deriv- 
ed."* 

Mr.  Jameson  observes  that  "  numerous  large  blocks, 
or  masses  of  mountain  rocks,  are  frequently  met  with, 
in  almost  every  country  in  Europe,  and  frequently 
very  far  removed  from  their  original  situations.  Swit- 
zerland, and  the  surrounding  countries,  present  nume- 
rous and  very  interesting  appearances  of  this  kind. 

On  the  mountains  of  Jura,  immediately  in  the  line 
of  direction  of  the  Vallais,  and  nearly  to  the  height  of 
6000  feet,  enormous  blocks  of  granite  are  found  resting 
upon  the  lime  stone  rock  of  that  range  of  mountains. 
These  blocks  are  of  that  species  of  granite,  which 
forms  the  mountains  of  Ornex,  belonging  to  the  group 
of  Mont  Blanc ;  hence,  it  is  inferred  that  they  must 
have  been  transported  by  the  force  of  water,  from  that 
region  to  their  present  situation. ??f 

Where  large  masses  of  rocks  are  found  out  of  place, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  high  mountains,  as  the  Pyren- 
nees ;  we  can  easily  conceive  how  those  masses  of  gra- 
nite and  other  rocks,  are  removed  out  of  their  proper 
places,  and  deposited  where  they  are,  when  we  can  ac- 
tually see  them  hurried  down  the  impetuous  current, 
seemingly,  with  as  much  facility  as  that  of  rolled  peb- 

*  Theory  of  the  Earth,  p.  43.  Amer.  Edit.        t  Page  190, 


bles.  Such  is  the  case  on  the  sides  of  almost  all  high 
mountains  ;  and  such  was  evinced  in  a  very  striking 
manner,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Baltimore,  and  in  ma- 
ny places  in  Baltimore  county  and  elsewhere,  during 
the  dreadful  fall  of  rain  which  was  experienced,  in  al- 
most every  part  of  the  United  States,  in  July  1817. 
In  this  instance,  rocks  of  granite  of  many  tons  weight 
were  hurried  down  the  streams  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or 
more,  and  that  almost  on  a  perfect  level. 

With  respect  to  the  masses  of  granite  in  the  state  of 
Ohio,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cincinnati,  and  also 
in  the  states  of  Kentucky  and  Indiana,  the  case  is  very 
different.  There  are  no  mountains  within  a  great  dis- 
tance, from  which  they  could  have  been  torn ;  neither 
are  they  on  the  bottom,  or  on  the  margins  of  rivers, 
-from  whose  sources  they  could  have  been  brought, 
either  by  the  current  or  by  ice  ;  but  promiscuously  in- 
terspersed over  a  great  extent  of  country,  which  is,  be- 
yond all  doubt,  decidedly  alluvial. 

Neither  is  there  any  known  volcano  from  which  they 
could  have  been  thrown  ;  or,  if  there  were  such,  the  ju- 
dicious remarks  of  Dr.  Drake  on  the  subject,  are  suffi- 
cient to  remove  all  doubts  on  that  point,  (viz  :)  "  that 
their  surfaces  discover  no  signs  of  vitrification,  and 
their  distribution  too  much  in  groups  to  favour  this 
suggestion."* 

Hence,  there  remains  no  point  or  incident  on  which 
the  mind  can  fix,  that  will  explain  this  phenomenon, 

*  Drake's  Picture  of  Cincinnati. 


95 

except  that  of  their  having  been  transported  by  a  cur- 
rent from  high  northern  regions,  enveloped  in  enor- 
mous masses  of  ice  ;  and  from  no  other  point ;  for  it 
would  be  absurd  in  the  extreme,  to  suppose  that  masses 
of  ice  could  have  been  formed  in  the  torrid  zone,  or 
even  within  the  temperate  zone,  of  sufficient  magnitude 
to  have  transported  those  rocks  from  the  south  to  their 
present  situation.  Hence,  the  conclusion  is,  that  they 
were  brought  there  by  the  same  current,  that  once  flow- 
ed from  the  north  east  to  the  south  west,  or  from  north 
to  south,  over  the  surface  of  the  whole  continent  of 
America, 

This  opinion  receives  additional  support  from  the 
following  circumstance  ;  the  huge  fields  and  mountains 
of  ice,  which  every  spring  float  down  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  seldom  reach  the  latitude  of  from  89°  to  40°, 
which  is  about  the  latitude  in  which  those  rocks  lie, 
before  they  become  so  weak  and  rotten  as  to  be  incapa- 
ble of  supporting,  or  retaining  any  considerable  weight 
that  might  be  attached  to  them.  It  therefore  fol- 
lows as  a  natural  consequence,  that  by  the  time  the 
masses  of  ice  had  reached  those  latitudes,  they  must 
necessarily  have  discharged  the  entire  balance  of  their 
freight,  if  they  contained  any. 

On  the  few  remaining  facts,  which  I  shall  notice  in 
the  present  instance,  1  might  repose  in  entire  confi- 
dence ;  deeming  them,  alone,  sufficient  to  prove,  not 
only  the  existence  of  a  general  current,  setting  from  the 
north  east  to  the  south  we&t,  across  the  continent  of 
America ;  but  that  nearly  the  entire  alluvial  district, 


96 

bordering  the  Atlantic  shores  from  Long  Island  to  the 
gulf  of  Mexico,  was  formed  by  the  operations  of  this 
current. 

Istly.  On  almost  all  the  rivers  in  America,  that  have 
a  southerly  course,  and  run  any  distance  through  an  al- 
luvial formation,  (that  on  the  borders  of  the  ocean  ex- 
cepted,)  we  find  from  actual  observation,  and  from 
Stoddard's  Sketches,  Drake's  Picture  of  Cincinnati, 
Lewis  and  Clarke's,  McKenzie's,  Herriot's  and  other 
travels,  two,  and  sometimes  three,  alluvial  banks  on 
each  side.*  Those  which  are  next  to  the  rivers,  on 

*  It  is  particularly  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  same  circum- 
stance is  observable  in  the  great  alluvial  region  of  America,  which 
bounds  the  Atlantic  on  the  south  ;  and  that  of  Asia,  which  bounds 
the  Arctic  sea  on  the  north. 

The  Abbe  Chappe  D'Auteroche,  who  visited  Siberia  in  1761, 
has  taken  particular  notice  of  this  fact.  He  describes  the  plains  of 
Siberia,  wbich  extend  to  a  great  distance  within  the  dominions  of 
Russia,  to  be  four  hundred  leagues  in  breadth,  in  their  widest  part, 
from  south  to  north,  and  upwards  of  seven  hundred  leagues  in  ex- 
tent from  west  to  east.  Over  this  immense  region  he  travelled  se- 
ven hundred  leagues.  In  this  distance  he  observed  three,  and  in 
some  parts,  four  distinct  plains,  the  height  of  which,  above  the  sea 
he  ascertained. 

Three  of  these  plains  he  describes  as  being  parallel  with  the  ho- 
rizon. The  third  he  observes,  "  makes  an  angle  of  about  two  de- 
grees and  a  half  with  the  horizon  at  Tobolsky."  And  further,  «'  It 
rises  more  and  more  towards  the  south,  and  sinks  towards  the 
north."  Or,  in  other  words,  as  it  approaches  the  Arctic  sea. — Abbe 
Chappe's  Travels,  page  156  and  32. 

The  alluvial  region  of  America  will  doubtless  afford  corresponding 
results,  should  any  one  undertake  to  make  the  necessary  observa- 


97 

each  side,  are,  in  general,  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
feet  above  low  water.  The  second,  which  are  at  a 
greater  or  less  distance  from  the  rivers,  are  from  thir- 
ty to  fifty  feet  above  the  first,  and  sometimes  more. 

tions.  But  as  no  one  has  hitherto  attempted  it,  that  I  know  of,  it 
is  impossible  for  me  to  point  out  the  number  of  plains  with  their 
extent  and  limits,  that  may  be  contained  within  this  vast  district. 
This  much,  however,  I  may  venture  to  assert,  from  my  own  obser- 
vations, and  from  verbal  testimony. 

The  highest  level  of  our  alluvial  district  is  that  part,  I  believe, 
which  joins  upon  the  granite  ridge,  or  range  of  primitive  formation. 
At  right  angles  from  this  range,  or  in  a  south  east  direction,  it  ex- 
tends to  the  distance  of  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  miles, 
nearly  on  the  same  level.  From  thence,  on  very  good  authority, 
there  is  a  sensible  difference  in  the  height  of  the  general  level  of 
the  soil  above  the  ocean.  This  extends  to  a  similar  distance, 
whence  there  is  an  obvious  but  gradual  descent  to  the  ocean.  And, 
moreover,  what  seems  worthy  of  further  notice  is,  that  the  second 
range  of  plains  or  levels,  seems  to  be,  by  far,  the  most  abundant  in 
fossil  organick  remains.  Whether  so  or  not,  it  is  a  subject  by  no 
means  unworthy  of  a  more  particular  attention. 

Since  writing  the  above,  I  find  the  following  interesting  facts 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Bartram  in  his  travels  through  East  and  West 
Florida  :— 

4<  In  our  progress  from  the  sea  coast,  we  rise  gradually,  by  se- 
veral steps  or  ascents,  in  the  following  manner.  First,  from  the 
sea  coast,  fifty  miles  back,  is  a  level  plain,  generally,  of  a  loose 
sandy  soil,  producing  spacious  high  forests,"  &c. 

Secondly,  *4  We  now  rise  a  bank  of  considerable  height,  which 
runs  nearly  parallel  to  the  sea  coast,  through  Carolina  and  Geor- 
gia :  the  ascent  is  gradual  by  several  flights  of  steps,  for  eight  or 
ten  miles,  the  perpendicular  height  whereof,  above  the  level  of  the 


m 

These  two  alluvial  banks  so  uniformly  accompanying 
each  other,  upon  almost  all  rivers  of  any  magnitude, 
where  there  is  an  alluvial  formation  upon  their  borders, 
constitute  the  only,  yet  unequivocal  indications,  at 
least,  of  two  general  deluges  over  this  part  of  the  con- 
tinent ;  and  to  which  I  alluded  in  a  former  part  of  this 
essay. 

I  say  general ;  the  one  was  probably  such  ;  the  other 
may  have  been  partial ;  that  is,  not  rising  to  so  great 
a  height  as  to  cover  the  highest  mountains,  or  even  the 
highest  hills.  These  two  deluges  happened  at  two 
different  epochs,  probably,  not  very  remote  from  each 
other. 

But  the  circumstances  that  favour  the  opinion  of  a 
north  east  and  south  west  current  is,  that,  in  general, 
the  alluvial  banks  on  the  north  and  east  sides  of  the 
rivers  are  considerably  the  widest,  with  few  excep- 

ocean,  may  be  two  or  three  hundred  feet,  and  these  are.  called  the 
sand  nil's,  when  we  find  ourselves  on  the  entrance  of  a  vast  plain, 
generally  level,  which  extends  west  sixty  or  seventy  miles,  rising 
gently,  as  the  former,  but  more  perceptibly." 

Thirdly,  "  The  next  ascent,  or  flight,  is  of  much  greater,  and 
more  abrupt  elevation,  and  continues  rising  by  broken  ridges  and 
narrow  levels,  or  vales,  for  ten  or  fifteen  miles,  when  we  rest  again 
on  another  extensive  nearly  Ifvd  plain  of  pine  forests,  mixed  with 
various  other  forest  trees,  which  continues  west  forty  or  fifty  miles 
farther." — Bartram's  Travels,  page  28,  SO  and  SI. 

These  plains  are  represented  as  being  composed,  (at  the  sur- 
face at  least,)  of  sand  and  small  gravel;  and  while  their  existence 
affords  a  powerful  support  to  my  opinion,  they  likewise  prove  the 
striking  correspondencies  that  prevail  in  the  general  and  promi- 
nent features  of  those  two  immense  districts. 


99 

lions,  and  these  are  mostly  in  the  lower  bank.     This  I 
attribute  to  the  following  cause. 

It  is  an  established  principle,  and  one  that  will  al- 
most universally  hold  good,  that  when  an  auxiliary 
stream  falls,  either  obliquely  or  at  right  angles,  into  a 
stream  of  equal  or  greater  magnitude,  the  auxiliary 
branch  will  urge  on  its  alluvion  and  deposite  it,  some- 
times to  a  considerable  distance  into  the  principal 
stream  ;  until  overcome  by  the  power  of  the  latter,  it  is 
then  swept  away  by  the  general  current.  This  may 
be  every  day  observed  in  rivers,  creeks,  brooks,  and 
their  auxiliary  streams.  Hence  the  conclusion,  that 
the  general  current,  while  it  was  rising  in  height  and 
increasing  in  rapidity,  must  naturally  urge  on,  or  force 
the  currents  of  rivers  further  westerly  and  south- 
erly, and  meeting  with  a  partial  check  by  the  current 
of  the  latter,  which  must  be  supposed  to  rise  in  height 
and  increase  in  rapidity,  in  a  corresponding  ratio, 
continued  to  deposite  their  alluvion  upon  their  eastern 
and  northern  shores  only,  until  the  highest  hills  were 
inundated  and  the  currents  of  rivers  were  merged  in 
that  of  the  general  current ;  after  which  the  increas- 
ing quantity  of  its  alluvion,  meeting  with  no  check, 
was  swept  across  the  continent  and  into  the  ocean. 

When  I  speak  of  rivers  having  been  urged  from 
their  original  and  primitive  courses  or  beds,  by  a  con- 
tinued lateral  force,  I  do  not  mean  to  infer  that  they 
were  originally  restricted  to  the  same  narrow  limits 
that  they  in  general  now  are ;  very  far  from  it :  It 
must  appear  obvious  to  any  person  that  is  accustomed 


100 

to  travel  with  his  mind  awake,  and  his  eyes  open,  that 
most  of  the  rivers  east  of  the  Alleghany  Ridge,  and 
north  of  the  alluvial  district  upon  the  borders  of  the 
Atlantic,  must  have  once  run  through  small,  but 
beautiful  lakes,  interspersed  at  different  intervals  of 
their  distances,  from  their  sources  to  their  influx  ;  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  which,  in 
its  course  runs  through  Lakes  Superiour,  Huron,  Erie 
and  Ontario.  But  these  numerous  reservoirs,  in  whose 
tranquil  surfaces,  surrounding  nature,  in  all  her  varied 
hues,  has  been  a  thousand  and  a  thousand  times  reflect- 
ed, have  long  since  been  effaced  and  filled  up  with  allu- 
vion, and  that  too  most  probably  deposited  by  the  cur- 
rent of  which  I  am  speaking. 

On  the  gradual  subsidence  of  the  general  inunda- 
tion, the  rivers,  from  necessity,  being  compelled  to 
flow,  resumed  the  several  channels  which  they  had 
previously  occupied  when  overpowered  by  a  superiour 
force,  and  where  the  alluvial  deposites,  being  the  least 
in  quantity,  afforded  the  least  resistance  to  their 
currents. 

Whether  this  may  seem  the  most  rational  mode  of 
explaining  this  phenomenon,  I  shall  not,  at  present, 
insist ;  but  certain  it  is,  that  the  alluvial  banks,  as  I 
have  before  observed,  on  most  of  the  rivers  having  a 
northerly  and  southerly  direction;  are  considerably 
the  widest  on  the  Easterly  and  northerly  side.  On  the 
Connecticut  river,  the  alluvial  banks  on  the  east  side 
are  nearly  twice  the  breadth  of  those  on  the  west  side, 
except  in  some  instances,  where,  in  the  lower  banks. 


101 

the  river  has  in  the  lapse  of  time  varied  its  course, 
most  probably  from  some  local  cause. 

On  the  Hudson  river,  above  the  high  lands  I  believe 
the  same  may  be  observed.  With  respect  to  other 
rivers,  I  refer  to  the  authors  \vhom  I  have  already 
named. 

2dly.  It  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  in  digging  for 
wells  and  other  purposes  along  upon  the  northern 
borders  of  the  great  alluvial  district,  (and  in  some  in- 
stances, perhaps,  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  primi- 
tive range,)  we  find  at  the  depth  of  forty  or  fifty  feet, 
the  remains  of  a  variety  of  vegetable  substances,  and 
in  some  cases,  in  a  high  state  of  preservation. 

On  Long  Island,  the  remains  of  trees  have  been 
found  at  the  depth  of  forty-five,  and  fifty  feet.*  I  am 
likewise  informed,  that  in  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
and  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  remains  of  trees  are 
found  at  the  same  depth. 

The  same  thing  occurs  in  different  parts  of  Mary- 
land. In  Baltimore,  at  the  depth  of  forty-five  or  fifty 
feet,  we  find  the  remains  of  trees  and  their  fruits,  par- 
ticularly the  black  walnut,  (luglans  Nigra)  in  abun- 
dance. 

In  Virginia  this  fact  is  notorious,  and  I  believe  in 
all  the  states  from  Virginia  to  that  of  the  Mississippi. 

In  the  western  country  beyond  the  Alleghany,  re- 
mains of  trees  are  said  to  be  found  at  a  great  depth 

*  See  Bruce's  Mineralogical  Journal  for  Mitchell's  account  of 
Long  Island,  pages  132  &  162 — -63. 


102 

below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and,  in  some  instances, 
bearing  evident  marks  of  the  axe  that  was  used  in 
felling  the  tree.* 

In  Ohio,  grape  vines  are  found  at  the  depth  of  forty 
feet  below  the  surface. f 

Mr.  Stoddard.  in  his  Sketches  of  Louisiana,  when 
speaking  of  the  alluvial  lands,  on  Black  river,  ob- 
serves, (( An  opinion  prevails  that  these  and  the 
other  alluvial  lands  in  the  low  country  are  at  this  time 
much  more  elevated  than  formerly ."  This  is  fully 
supported  by  three  known  facts. — The  advances  of  the 
land  into  the  sea;  the  existence  of  trees  and  other 
woody  substances  at  a  considerable  depth  under  ground 
apparently  deposited  there  by  the  waters  ;  and  the  an- 
nual formation  of  an  alluvious  stratum,  by  means  of 
the  expansion  of  the  Mississippi  and  other  rivers. "J 

In  describing  the  Chickasaw  Bluffs,  and  those  at 
Natches,  the  river  St.  Catherine,  at  Fort  Adams,  and 
at  Baton  Rouge,  he  observes  "  Many  of  them  exhi- 
bit the  appearance  of  rock ;  but  their  substance  when 
carefully  examined,  is  found  to  be  extremely  porous, 
and  composed  of  hard  indurated  sand,  by  no  means 
strongly  combined,  and  easily  broken  in  pieces.  Others 
of  them  are  solid  banks  of  sand  of  various  colours,  inter- 
mixed with  lamina  of  iron  ore,  ochre  and  argillaceous 
earths.  At  the  bases  of  some  of  them,  (whose  height 

*  British  Spy,  p.  29.     t  See  Drake's  Picture  of  Cincinnati,  p.  TO, 
J  Stoddard's  Sketches,  page  199. 


103 

he  says  are  seventy-five,  others  more  than  two  hun- 
dred feet,)  numerous  trees  of  various  dimensions  are 
found  converted  into  stone,  by  the  petrifying  quality  of 
the  springs  about  them/'* 

Also,  ^  large  frees  are  often  found  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  feet  UNDER  ground,  in  some  of  the  exten- 
sive bottoms,  and  horn  four  to  six  miles  from  the  chan- 
nel. Add  to  this,  the  trunks  of  large  trees  at  the 
same  depth,  appear  in  a  horizontal  position  near  the 
bases  of  the  banks  ;  also  in  the  sides  of  the  banks  new- 
ly caved  in,  trees  in  a  perpendicular  position  are  con- 
stantly seen,  whose  shafts  above  their  roots  are  sunk 
from  twenty  to  twenty-jive  feet  below  the  surface  of 

the  ground."f 

Mr.  Bartram,  in  describing  the  cliffs  or  high  banks 
below  Natches,  on  the  Mississippi,  observes,  «  From 
eight  or  nine  feet  below  the  loamy  vegetable  mould  at 
top,  to  within  four  or  five  feet  of  the  water,  these  cliffs 
present  to  view  strata  of  clay,  marie  and  chalk,  of  all 
colours,  as  brown,  red,  yellow,  white,  blue  and  pur- 
ple 5  there  are  separate  strata  of  these  various  colours, 
as  well  as  mixed  or  particoloured  ;  the  lowest  stratum 
next  the  water  is  exactly  of  the  same  black  mud  or 
rich  soil,  as  the  adjacent  low  cypress  swamps,  and 
above  the  cliffs  we  see  vast  stumps  of  cypress  and 
other  trees,  which  at  this  day  grow  in  these  low,  wet 
swamps,  and  which  range  on  a  level  with  them. 
These  stumps  are  sound,  stand  upright,  and  seem  to 

*  Stoddard's  Sketches,  page  382.  t  Page  383. 


104 

be  rotted  off  about  two  or  three  feet  above  the  spread 
of  their  roots  ;  their  trunks,  limbs,  &c.  lie  in  all  direc- 
tions about  them.  But  when  those  swampy  forests 
were  growing,  and  by  what  cause  they  were  cut  off, 
and  overwhelmed  by  the  various  strata  of  earth,  which 
now  rise  near  one  hundred  feet  above,  at  the  bank  of 
the  cliffs,  and  two  or  three  times  that  height  but  a  few 
hundred  yards  back,  are  inquiries  perhaps  not  easily 
answered."* 

*  Bartram's  Travels,  page  433. 


CHAPTER  V. 


FROM  all  the  cases  which  I  have  enumerated,  together 
with  many  more  that  1  could  mention  if  it  were  neces- 
sary; it  appears  that  those  vegetable  and  other  re- 
mains, are  found  either  upon  the  soil  on  which  they 
grew,  or  on  the  ancient  bed  of  the  ocean  or  rivers. 

Jn  the  state  of  Maine,  it  appears  that  they  find,  at 
the  distance  of  twenty  miles  from  the  sea,  and  at  the 
depth  of  twenty  feet  below  the  surface,  "  numerous  bi- 
valve, and  some  univalve  shells,  now  found  on  our  sea- 
shore,'' enveloped  in  a  stiff'  blue  clay,  **  perfectly  re- 
sembling that  which  is  taken  from  the  borders  of  creeks 
and  bays  of  salt  water,  in  its  odour  and  other  proper- 
ties." Besides  these  "  rolled  stones  of  granite,  or 
gneiss  with  those  little  shells  adhering  which  seamen 
call  barnacles." 

In  Baltimore,  these  substances  are  found  upon  a  bot- 
tom resembling  marsh  mud.  At  Fort  M'Henry,  in 
sinking  a  well,  in  the  Star  Fort  in  1814,  the  workmen 
came  upon  a  mass  of  carbonated  wood,  being  part  of  a 
tree,  as  is  supposed,  lying  across  the  well,  at  the  depth 
of  fifty  feet  or  more,  in  a  boggy  marsh.  This  is  two 
miles  south  of  the  granite  ridge,  or  northern  border  of 

the  great  alluvial  district. 

15 


106 

In  Virginia  these  substances  are  found  in  a  stiff 
blue  clay ;  and  even  on  the  Mississippi,  Mr.  Stoddard 
says,  when  speaking  of  the  Delta.  "  these  are  buried 
in  a  substratum  of  black  earth,  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean,  and  already  begin  to  be  decomposed,  and  con- 
verted into  fossil  fuel."* 

From  hence,  the  obvious  conclusion  is,  that  at  some 
one  or  more  memorable  epochs,  the  entire  mass  of  al- 
luvial formation,  under  which  these  vegetable  remains 
are  found,  with  a  few  exceptions  near  the  mouths  of 
rivers,  was  deposited  upon  them,  and  that  too,  by  a 
general  inundation,  that  was  agitated  and  propelled  by 
a  current,  which  raised  the  yielding  soil  from  one 
place,  and  carried  and  deposited  it  in  another. 

Let  us  now  see  how  far  this  conclusion  is  supported 
by  the  facts  which  I  have  stated. 

The  bivalve  and  other  shells,  found  near  Bruns- 
wick (S.  Main)  at  the  depth  of  twenty  feet,  together 
with  <c  rolled  stones  of  granite  or  gneiss  having  bar- 
nacles adhering  to  them"  are  found  only  at,  or  near 
that  depth.  Now  there  being  no  appearance  of  any 
thing  of  the  kind  in  the  intermediate  space  between  the 
surface  and  that  depth,  I  am  led  to  inquire,  how  we 
shall  reconcile  the  opinion,  that  the  alluvial  deposites 
or  districts  were  formed  in  the  course  of  ages  by  the 
annual  overflowing  and  deposites  of  rivers  ?  If  they 
originated  from  tijis  cause,  we  might  very  naturally 
expect  to  find  univalve  shells  of  certain  kinds,  (though 

*  Stoddard 's  Sketches,  page  159. 


, 

107 

uot  of  barnacles,)  and  rolled  stones  of  granite,  or 
some  other  kind,  in  every  layer  or  stratum,  from  the 
depth  of  twenty  feet  to  the  surface ;  because  these 
substances  being  found  on  land,  may  every  year,  be 
carried  away  by  the  currents,  in  the  spring  freshes  or 
in  ice,  and  deposited  in  regular  successive  layers  with 
their  alluvion  :  but  this  is  not  the  case  ;  neither  is  it 
possible  that  it  can  be  so ;  because  the  banks  of  rivers, 
in  a  thousand  instances,  although  composed  entirely 
of  alluvion,  were  never  known  to  have  been  over- 
flown. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  find  it  equally  as  difficult  to 
reconcile  those  circumstances  to  the  opinion,  that  the 
alluvial  and  all  other  districts  are  the  deposites  from 
the  sea,  and  that,  on  its  gradual  subsidence,  they  have 
risen  to  their  present  height  above  its  surface  :  for  if  the 
various  families  of  shell  fish  were  in  existence,  at  the 
time  the  deposites  were  going  on,  at  the  depth  of  twen- 
ty feet  below  the  present  surface,  and  particularly  the 
barnacle  which  belongs  exclusively  to  salt  water,  and 
is  common,  I  believe,  to  every  sea  and  latitude  in  the 
known  world,  we  might  reasonably  expect  to  find  them 
in  every  successive  layer,  from  that  to  the  surface. 
Neither  is  this  the  case. 

The  latter,  in  particular,  are  found  adhering  to 
stones  in  a  blue  clay,  that,  in  all  probability,  once  form- 
ed the  ancient  bed  of  the  ocean  ;  and  which  has  been 
buried,  with  all  its  animal  and  vegetable  exuviae,  by 
an  immense  deposite  of  alluvion,  brought  from  theland 
by  an  irresistible  current. 


108 

The  same  reasoning  will  hold  good  with  respect  to 
the  deposites  of  vegetable  exuviae  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States ;  for  in  not  one  instance,  can  I  find 
that  vegetable  remains  have  been  discovered  lying  be- 
tween a  certain  specified  depth,  (which  is,  on  an  ave- 
rage, upon  the  margin  of  the  alluvial  district,  from 
thirty-five  to  forty  feet,)  and  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

This  being  the  case,  all  ideas  of  our  alluvial  dis- 
tricts having  been  formed  by  deposites  from  an  annual, 
or,  (which  sometimes  happens,)  semi-annual  inunda- 
tion of  the  lands  by  our  rivers,  is  at  an  end,  and  for 
reasons  already  advanced. 

A  very  different  opinion  prevails  with  many  I  know; 
and  among  a  host  of  others,  is  Mr.  Stoddard,  who  in  his 
interesting  sketches,  when  speaking  of  the  Mississip- 
pi, observes  "  The  banks  of  the  river  are  composed 
of  alluvious  strata,  and  in  places  where  they  newly 
cave  in,  the  different  layers  are  easily  distinguished. 
The  banks  between  the  Ohio  and  Missouri,  have  gene- 
rally, in  a  low  state  of  the  water,  an  elevation  of  more 
than  forty  feet,  and  exhibit  to  the  eye  about  nine  hun- 
dred distinct  layers.  What  conclusion  results  from 
this  fact?  Most  certainly,  that  these  alluvions  banks 
have  been  accumulating  during  a  period  of  nine  hun- 
dred years  ;  and  probably  much  longer,  as  the  freshes 
since  the  first  discovery  of  the  country,  have  not  risen 
over  them,  more  than  once  in  twenty  years.  No  doubt 
the  number  of  layers  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of 
the  freshes."* 

*  Stoddard's  Sketches,  page  383. 


109 

Admitting  this  statement  to  have  been  perfectly  cor- 
rect, let  us  examine  it  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  pro- 
bability of  the  conclusions  which  are  drawn. 

In  the  height  of  about  forty  feet,  there  are  nine  hun- 
dred layers,  each  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  re- 
sult of  an  inundation,  or  overflowing  of  the  banks. 
Now  forty  feet  divided  by  nine  hundred  gives  four 
eighths  and  |£J  of  an  inch,  in  each  layer  or  deposite. 
Then  let  us  suppose  that  the  upper  half  only  of  the 
bank,  or  twenty  feet,  has  been  overflowed  but  once 
in  twenty  years,  (which  he  says  has  been  the  case  in 
their  present  state,  "since  the  discovery  of  the  coun- 
try/') it  follows,  since  about  half  an  inch  is  the  amount 
of  each  deposite,  that  it  would  require  the  space  of 
nine  thousand  six  hundred  years  to  have  formed  the 
upper  half  of  the  bank. 

But  lest  this  should  be  considered  too  great  a  pro- 
portion, that  has  been  so  seldom  overflowed,  I  will 
take  only  one  fourth  of  the  height  (viz.)  ten  feet;  and 
even  this  would  require,  at  that  rate,  about  four  thou- 
sand two  or  three  hundred  years  to  have  formed  it,  in- 
stead of  nine  hundred,  the  ^ime  allotted  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  whole  height,  according  to  Mr.  Stoddard's 
calculation. 

If  we  were  to  admit  that  these  entire  banks  were  \ 
formed  by  the  overflowing  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and 
that  each  layer  was  the  result  of  an  annual  inundation, 
the  whole  of  which  requiring  nine  hundred,  or  even 
eighteen  hundred  years  for  their  completion,  the  ques- 
tion very  naturally  presents  itself,  since  Mr.  Stoddard 


110 

is  unwilling  to  admit  that  the  great  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi was  ever  a  lake,*  what  was  the  Mississippi 
doing  for  the  space  of  about  four  thousand  years  pre- 
vious ?    for  we  must  admit  that  it  has  flown  as  long, 
perhaps,  as  that  of  any  other  river.     Were  there  no 
alluvial  deposites  in  those  days ;  no   annual  inunda- 
tions by  long  continued  storms  of  rain,  and  by  the 
melting  of  the  snows  ?     Doubtless  there  were  :    but  it 
is  highly  improbable  that  the  present  banks  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  or  those  of  any  other  rivers,  except 
at  the  mouths  of  some,  were  formed  by  their  annual 
alluvious  deposites.     Neither  is  it  probable,  that  the 
different    strata    which  present  themselves   in   those 
banks,  were  each  the  result  of  an  annual  deposite; 
for  we  find  in  the  section  of  a  hill  upon  the  margin  of 
the  great  alluvial  district,  on  the  Atlantic,  where  pro- 
bably no  river  has  ever  flowed,  the  same  stratification, 
in  parallelisms  of  one  or  two  inches,  as  regular  as  the 
courses  of  brick  in  a  wall.     Examine  those  strata  jn 
a  perpendicular  section  of  the  hill,  at  right  angles  from 
the  first  section,  and  they  appear  undulating,  tortuous, 
or  having  various  degrees  of  declination  ;  so  that  all 
attempts  to  determine  the  time  employed  in  their  depo- 
sition and  formation,  is  rendered  abortive  by  this  cir- 
cumstance alone. 

If  the  great  alluvial  district  upon  the  borders  of  our 
Atlantic  shores,  and  the  alluvial  banks  of  all  our  ri- 
vers were  gradually  formed  by  the  annual  deposites  of 

*  Stoddard's  Sketches,  page  S8-J. 


Ill 

alluvion  from  the  overflowing  of  those  rivers,  we  might 
reasonably  expect,  since  it  is  well  known,  that  in 
every  spring  and  autumnal  flood,  from  time  immemorial, 
a  great  quantity  of  logs  and  drift  wood  is  floated  down 
their  currents,  and  carried  into  the  sea,  or  deposited 
in  their  beds,  that  we  should  find,  particularly  in  the 
banks  of  rivers,  some  of  their  remains  deposited  in 
every  foot  of  the  alluvial  formation,  from  the  bed  of  the 
rivers  to  the  highest  point  that  is  inundated  :  but  this 
I  believe  is  not  the  case.  I  have  been  zealous  in  my 
endeavours  to  obtain  information  on  this  point ;  and  in 
no  one  instance  can  I  find,  from  the  state  of  Maine  to 
the  Mississippi,  that  vegetable  remains  have  been  dis- 
covered between  two  or  three  feet  below  the  surface, 
and  about  the  medium  depth  of  forty  feet  ;  except  in 
some  swamps,  where  stumps  and  logs  are  sometimes 
found  at  the  depth  of  four  or  five  feet,  buried,  in  the 
course  of  time,  probably,  by  the  decomposition  of  vege- 
table matter  :  and  also  in  alluvial  islands  in  the  channels 
of  rivers,  where  every  foot  of  their  depth,  particularly 
of  that  part  which  receives  the  force  of  the  current,  dis- 
covers logs,  brush- wood,  bark,  nuts,  and  leaves,  pro- 
miscuously thrown  together  and  buried  by  successive 
deposits  of  alluvion. 

3dly.  In  the  great  alluvial  district  of  which  I 
have  been  speaking,  and  which  contains,  beneath  its 
surface,  almost  from  one  end  to  the  other,  an  immense 
and  highly  interesting  cabinet  of  natural  history,  there 
are  found,  besides  deposites  of  vegetable  substances, 
great  quantities  of  fossil  remains,  of  fishes  of  various 


U2 

species,  of  birds,  and  in  particular  of  various  kinds  of 
quadrupeds. 

A  part  of  a  jaw,  with  a  tooth,  of  what  is  supposed  to 
have  belonged  to  the  spermaceti  whale  has  been  found 
in  Monmouth  county,  (New  Jersey,)  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Sandy  Hook,  in  an  extensive  deposite  of  marine 
shells  :  and  doubtless  many  more  have  already,  or  will 
be  found  in  various  parts  of  the  alluvial  district  in 
New  Jersey,  and  also  in  Delaware. 

In  Maryland,  upon  the  eastern,  and  some  parts  of 
the  western  shore,  there  have  been  found  the  skeletons 
of  whales,  sharks,  porpoises,  and  other  large  fish  ;  as 
also  terrapins,  and  almost  incredible  quantities  of  fos- 
sil shells  of  various  kinds,  many  of  which  are  unknown 
to  exist  at  the  present  day. 

These  substances,  with  great  numbers  of  the  teeth  of 
sharks  and  those  of  other  fishes  of  various  sizes,  are 
sometimes  dug  up  in  the  marie  or  shell  pits,  but  more 
frequently  washed  out  of  the  banks  of  rivers,  at  low 
water,  and  are  exposed  on  the  shores.  Sharks  teeth 
are  found  at  St.  Mary's  (Maryland)  three  inches 
in  length,  some  of  which  may  be  seen  at  Mr.  Peale's 
museum. 

At  Choptank,  a  species  of  very  large  scollops,  re- 
sembling the  Pectens  Magnus,  subrufus,  of  Lister,  are 
washed  out  of  the  banks,  with  barnacles  of  an  extraordin- 
ary size  attached  to^hem,  and  which  may  likewise  be 
seen  in  Mr.  Peale's  museum  (Baltimore.)  In  Virginia 
also  the  carcasses  of  whales,  of  sharks  of  a  great 


113 

•size,  of  porpoises,  of  terrapins,  and  shells  of  various 
kinds,  in  immense  quantities,  are  founa  in  digging  of 
pits  or  wells,  or  washed  out  of  the  banks  of  rivers,  at, 
or  near  low  icater  mark,  and  in  one  instance  fossil  re- 
mains of  a  bird  of  a  large  size*. 

In  North  and  South  Carolina,  similar  discoveries 
have  been  made — in  one  instance  the  skeleton  of  a 
shark,  forty  feet  in  length,  was  found  nearly  entire, 
some  of  the  teeth  of  which  are  nearly  four  inches  broad 
at  their  base,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  cabinet  of  the 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  in  New  York, 

The    circumstances  of  the  fossil  remains  of  fishes  of 
various  kinds,  being  so  widely  distributed  over  such  an 
extent  of  country,   is   calculated  to  excite,  in  the  en- 
quiring mind,  a  degree  of  wonder  and  astonishment; 
while  with  many,    it  is  viewed  with  a  cold  and   inex- 
cusable indifference  ;  either  because  it  so  frequently 
occurs,   and  is  so  common  ;    or,  with  others  still  more 
enlightened,  because  occurrences  of  a  similar  nature, 
as  is  supposed,  are  frequent,  and  have  long  since  been 
known  to  exist  in  different  parts  of  the  world.     But   if 
the  subject  were  examined  with  due  attention,  and  the 
various  circumstances  considered  in  all  their  bearings 
and  relations,  few  would  hesitate  to  acknowledge,  that 
scarce  a  parallel  case  exists  in  the  known  world. 

How,  or  in  what  way,   those  fossil  remains  were 
brought  and  deposited  in  the  manner  and  where  they 

*  See  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  iv,  p.  457,  and  British  »py 
page  19,  sixth  edition. 

16 


are,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  ;  or,  in  endeavouring  to  ex- 
plain the  secret,  what  method  will  bear  most  the  sem- 
blance of,  or  approach  nearest  the  truth,  it  is  equally  as 
difficult  to  say. 

Some  have  attempted  a  solution  of  the  phenomenon, 
in  a  way  that  has  obtained  considerable  credit ;  while 
others  have  advanced  opinions  unsupported  either  by 
reason  or  analogy. 

But  however  plausible  they  may  appear,  it  is  not 
my  intention,  in  the  present  instance,  to  discuss  the 
merits  of  the  former  ,  much  less  am  I  disposed  to  take 
notice  of  the  latter.  Two  circumstances,  however,  I 
must  necessarily  take  into  view,  in  explaining  my 
own  ideas  of  the  subject. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  highly  improbable  that  these 
fishes  were  floating  alive,  and  naturally  in  their  own 
element,  and  that  they  were  caught  or  entrapped  by  a 
deposition  of  alluvion  from  the  sea,  in  a  natural  state, 
and  by  which  they  were  buried  alive,  and  the  alluvial 
district  formed  ;  and  for  the  following  reasons. 

There  are  many  points  of  the  alluvial  district,  which 
are  actually  higher  than  many  parts  of  the  primitive 
district  on  its  borders,  and  particularly  of  the  granite 
ridge  ;  consequently,  there  ought  to  have  been  alluvial 
deposites  of  equal  height  upon  the  latter  likewise  5  but 
this  is  not  the  case, 

Secondly,  If  this  district  was  formed  by  deposites 
from  the  ocean,  when  at  that  height,  why  do  we  not 
find  those  fossil  remains  of  fishes  and  other  marine 
animals,  throughout  the  whole  depth  of  the  alluvial 


us 

formation,  and  also  upon  the  margin  of  the  primitive 
district,  as  well  as  at  low  water,  or  nearly  on  the  pre- 
sent level  of  the  ocean  ?  If  fishes  existed  before  this 
alluvial  deposite,  which  must  have  been  the  case,  as 
they  are  now  found  below  it,  in  what  appears  to  have 
been  the  ancient  bed  of  the  ocean,  they  must  necessa- 
rily have  existed  during,  as  well  as  subsequently  to, 
this  deposite  of  alluvion  :  therefore  we  might  reasona- 
bly expect  to  find  them  throughout  the  entire  depth  of 
this  district ;  but  this  is  not  the  case. 

Thirdly,  If  the  district  in  question  were  formed  by 
deposites  from  the  ocean,  by  which  the  fishes  and 
other  marine  animals  were  buried ;  why  is  it  that  we 
cannot  discover  any  of  their  remains,  within  a  consi- 
derable distance  of  the  primitive  district,  or  granite 
ridge,  which  must  be  allowed  by  all,  to  have  been  the 
ancient  border  of  the  ocean,  and  at  present  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  alluvial  region  ?  • 

From  the  best  information  that  I  can  obtain,  no  re- 
mains of  fishes,  (those  of  shell  fish  excepted,)  have  as 
yet  been  found  to  the  northward  of  the  Chesapeake 
bay,  within  about  twenty  or  twenty-five  miles  of  the 
granite  ridge.  It  is,  I  believe,  at  about  the  same  dis- 
tance, that  they  are  found  in  Maryland.  In  Virginia, 
they  are  found  within  a  shorter  distance ;  and  as  we 
advance  to  the  southward,  the  distance  from  the  pri- 
mitive range  seems  to  be  still  less. 

To  what  this  circumstance  can  be  owing,  I  am  un- 
able to  tell  ;  unless,  as  we  advance  towards  the  gulf 
of  Mexico,  the  waters  of  this  part  of  the  district  were. 


116 

originally,  deeper  than  farther  lorthward  ;  therefore, 
they  very  naturally  frequented  the  waters  nearer  the 
primitive  shore. 

But,  even  admitting  the  truth  of  this  supposition,  it 
does  not  explain  the  cause  of  the  detention  of  such 
numbers  as  are  found,  of  various  kinds  ;  nor  the  means 
that  were  employed  to  bury  them  in  the  situation,  and 
at  the  depth  in  which  they,  at  present,  are  discovered  ; 
neither  is  it,  at  best,  a  matter  of  easy  solution,  upon 
principles  that  are  wholly  unexceptionable. 

There  are,  however,  certain  traits  in  the  natural  his- 
tory or  character  of  fishes,  that  afford  strong  grounds, 
not  only  for  a  plausible,  but  a  rational,  hypothesis  ; 
and  one,  that  is,  perhaps,  as  well  calculated  to  unfold 
the  truth  on  this  point,  as  that  of  any  other. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  fishes  of  almost  every 
description,  are  as  easily  disturbed,  and  discover  as 
much  anxiety  or  uneasiness,  and  are  as  easily  affright- 
ed, by  an  unusual  agitation  of  the  element  in  which 
they  move,  as  men  and  animals  in  our  common  at- 
mosphere during  a  gale  of  wind,  or  a  hurricane. 

This  is  well  known  to  sea  faring  men  of  observation, 
and  many  others.  During  a  calm,  at  sea,  thousands 
of  fishes  are  often  seen  sporting  leisurely  in  the  lucid 
waves  ;  but  the  moment  that  a  strong  breeze  of  wind 
springs  up,  by  which  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  agitated, 
thea\  disappear,  and  perhaps  none  of  them  are  to  be 
seen  ;  but  if  there  are,  and  particularly  during  a  storm 
or  gale  of  wind,  their  movements  are  quick,  and  dis- 
cover much  agitation. 


117 

They  are  also,  in  moderate  weather,  frequently  seen 
in  shoals,  driving  with  surprising  velocity  through  the 
water,  from  a  point  that  indicates  to  seamen,  a  sure 
prognostication  of  an  approaching  gale  of  wind,  or 
dreadful  swell  of  the  sea  from  that  quarter.  And  are 
not  the  same  characteristick  habits,  discoverable  in  al- 
most every  species  of  the  winged  tribes  ?  Do  we  not 
see  almost  every  individual  of  the  feathered  race  dis- 
appear. at  the  threatning  onset  of  a  hurricane,  to  seek, 
in  a  safe  retreat,  a  shelter  from  its  destructive  ravages  ? 
with  this  exception,  only  that  the  hated  Sheer-Water, 
in  sportive  gambols,  fearlessly  skims  the  maddening 
billows,  while  the  ship-wrecked  seaman,  with  envious 
gaze,  beholds  it  in  safety,  mocking  the  foaming 
summits  that  every  moment  threaten  him  with  death. 

Denon,  in  describing  the  approach  of  the  Karasin, 
or  hurricane  in  Egypt,  observes  "  The  yellow  hori- 
zon shewed  the  trees  on  its  surface  of  a  dirty  blue  ; 
the  flocks  of  birds  were  flying  off  before  the  clouds  ; 
the  affrighted  animals  ran  loose  in  the  country,  follow- 
ed by  the  shouting  inhabitants,  who  vainly  attempted 
to  collect  them  together  again."* 

In  the  description  of  an  approaching  hurricane  of 
dust  at  Lucknow  (Hindostan)  it  is  observed,  "  The 
birds  were  flying  very  high,  making  a  terrible  scream  - 


The  fishes  that  annually  ascend  our  fresh  water  ri- 
vers, during  the  spring  floods,  discover  the  same  cha- 
racteristick habits. 

*  Vol.  ii,  ]>.  528,          f  Lord  Valeria's  Travels  vol.  i    p    !f,l. 


118 

During  the  prevalence  of  a  rapid  current,  when  the 
fresh  is  at  its  height,  accompanied  by  a  violent  north 
east  wind,  it  is  well  known  by  fishermen  that  "  the  fish 
will  not  run"  as  it  is  termed  ;  they  seek  shelter  under 
projecting  points,  and  headlands,  and  in  eddies  where 
they  are  less  disturbed. 

In  some  instances,  when  the  waters  are  turbid  with 
alluvion,  they  run  into  the  small  creeks  and  auxiliary 
branches  of  larger  size,  and  not  knowing  their  situa- 
tion on  account  of  the  water  being  so  charged  with  mud 
(for  fishes  cannot  see  better  in  muddy  water  than  man 
in  a  thick  fog  or  smoke,)  they  pursue  their  course 
through  a  wide  extended  flood,  which  overflows  the 
meadows  and  low  grounds,  into  orchards  and  corn- 
fields, where,  on  the  sudden  falling  of  the  water,  they 
are  often  left  in  little  ponds  in  low  places.  This  is 
sometimes  the  case  with  shad,  but  more  particularly 
with  herrings,  which  have,  in  this  situation,  been  caught, 
by  thousands,  with  baskets  and  buckets. 

It  is  also  said,  that  whales  by  coming  too  near  the 
stream  or  current  of  the  Maelstrom,  are  caught  in  its 
yawning  vortices  ;  in  which  situation,  it  is  impossible 
to  describe  the  dreadful  noise  they  make  in  their  fruit- 
less struggles  to  extricate  themselves  from  the  inevi- 
table destruction  that  awaits  them.* 

Admitting  these  facts,  need  we  wonder,  that  while 
the  whole  Atlantic  ocean  was  agitated  by  a  current 

*See  Pontoppidan's  History  of  Norway,  page  79,  and  Brook's  des- 
cription of  the  Maelstrom. 


119 

flowing  with  inconceivable  rapidity  to  the  south,  that 
thousands  of  Sharks,  of  Porpoises  and  smaller  fishes,  af- 
frighted at  the  dreadful  onset,  should  endeavour  to  flee 
from  its  threatening  influence,  and  seek  safety  in  the 
less  troubled  waters  of  the  deep  bay  of  Mexico  ;  or 
along  under  the  ancient  borders  which  skirted  this  ex- 
tensive gulf  on  the  north  ?  Need  we  wonder,  while, 
at  this  portentous  epoch,  avenging  heaven  was  threat- 
ening universal  ruin  ;  "  when  every  living  creature 
that  creepeth  upon  the  face  of  the  earth"  was  soon  to  be 
destroyed  :  and  man,  the  outcast,  awaiting  his  hope- 
less doom,  that  the  great  Leviathan  of  the  deep,  hur- 
ried by  a  resistless  current  from  his  wonted  haunts  in 
the  cold  regions  of  the  north,  should  seek  peace  and 
safety  in  this  less  troubled  sea  ?  To  me  it  appears  by 
no  means  improbable ;  and  if  we  admit  the  supposition, 
it  is  easy  to  explain  the  cause  of  their  being  detained, 
and  buried  in  such  numbers  where  they  are ;  for  as 
soon  as  the  ocean  had  risen  to  such  a  height  as  to  flow 
across  the  continent,  the  flood  or  current,  being  thick- 
ened with  mud  and  earth  which  it  had  raised  in  its 
course,  was  carried  into  the  bay  or  gulph  of  Mexico, 
by  which  they  were  involved  in  thick  darkness,  (to 
them,)  and  as  the  alluvion  was  deposited,  they  were  li- 
terally deluged  with  mud,  and  buried  alive  where  their 
remains  are  now  found. 

This  affords  a  satisfactory  reason  why  the  skeletons 
of  fishes,  that  are  found  in  this  district,  are  almost  en- 
tire, that  is  to  say,  the  bones,  though  disjointed  by 
time,  are  nearly  all  found  together. 


120 

All  opinion  is  entertained  by  some,  particularly  those 
who  believe  that  this  district  has  been  formed,  in  the 
course  of  time,   by  the  alluvion  thrown  upon  our  coast 
by  the  gulf  stream,   that  these  were  likewise  thrown, 
either  dead  or  alive,  upon  our  coast,  and  subsequently 
buried  by  an  accession   of  alluvion  washed  up  by  the 
ocean.     But  is  it  probable  that  the  body  of  an  animal 
can  remain  on  the  sea  shore  one  or  two  weeks  at  most, 
exposed  to  an  incessant  agitation  and  abrasion  by   the 
billows  of  the  ocean,  without  being  completely  disjoin- 
ted, and  the  bones  scattered  upon  the  beach  ;  particu- 
larly during  the  summer  season  ?     Nay,    I  will  ask  if 
there  is  a  point  between  any  two  rivers,   from  Cape 
Henry  to  the  Mississippi,  where  there  has  been  a  suf- 
ficient actual  increase  of  alluvion  to  bury  the  carcass  of 
a  whale  within  twenty  years  ?     I  doubt  not  !    and  if 
so,  will  any  person  contend  that  the  carcass  of  a  whale 
could  have  remained,   under   such  circumstances,  one 
twentieth  part  of  that  time,    without  being  completely 
dissected,  bone  from   bone,  when    Bremontier,  in  his 
new  and  interesting  "  Kecherches  sur   le   movement 
ties   Ondes''    tells  us,  that  the  pebbles  upon  the   sea 
shore,  in  many  places,  are,   by  the   action  of  the  surf, 
ground  to  the  most  "  impalpable  molecule  (powder) 
insomuch  that  its  specific  gravity  scarcely  exceeds  that 
of  water,  and  is  hence  borne  away  with  the  tides  into 
the  sea,  or,  when  the  tides  are  at  ebb,  becoming  dry 
upon  the  beach,  is  taken  up  by  the  winds  and  carried 
further  inland  in  clouds  of  dust. 

Uuder  such  circumstances,   it  is  impossible  to  admit 


121 

that  the  district  in  question,  could  have  been  tormed 
by  the  alluvion  washed  up  by  the  sea ;  nor  in  any 
other  way  than  by  a  current  setting  across  the  conti- 
nent of  America,  from  the  north  east  to  the  south  west, 
or  from  north  to  south.  This  I  hope  will  be  made  to 
appear  satisfactory  by  the  following  facts  and  con- 
clusions. 

I  have  observed,  that  among  other  fossil  remains, 
found  in  the  alluvial  regions,  were  those  of  quad- 
rupeds. 

In  New  Jersey,  fossil  bones  and  teeth  or  grinders 
of  the  Asiatick  elephant,  have  been  found  of  an  im- 
mense size.* 

On  the  eastern  and  western  shore  of  Maryland,  these 
remains  have  likewise  been  found. 

In  digging  a  well  in  the  star-fort  of  Fort  M 'Henry, 
a  tooth  of  the  Mastodon  (or  Mammoth)  was  found 
at  the  depth  of  near  sixty  feet  below  the  surface. 

On  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland,  in  Queen  Ann's 
county,  an  enormous  grinder  of  the  Asiatick  elephant 
was  likewise  dug  up,  on  the  plantation  of  Mr.  Carmi- 
chael,  enveloped  in  a  stiff  blue  clay.  This  1  have 
in  my  possession. 

Since  the  above  grinder  was  discovered,  I  have  re- 
ceived information  from  a  very  respectable  source, 
that  a  pair  of  large  horns  of  the  deer  kind  were  found, 

*  For  particulars  relating  to  these,  and  a  variety  of  other  in- 
teresting facts  of  a  similar  kind,  see  the  New-York  edition  of 
Cuviers  Theory,  by  J)r.  S.  L.  Mitchell. 

17 


with  (he  carcase  of  a  whale,  in  digging  in  the  marie 
or  shell  pits  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland. 

In  the  marie  pits,  near  Easton  (Maryland)  fossil 
vertebral  bones,  apparently  of  quadrupeds,  have  been 
dug  up,  some  of  which  are  more  than  six  inches 
in  length,  by  about  five  in  diameter  :  in  others,  of 
which  I  have  specimens,  the  diameter  is  greater  than 
the  length. 

In  the  summ?r,  I  believe,  of  1811,  the  bones  of  a 
mammoth  were  dug  up  on  the  banks  of  York  river, 
(in  Virginia.)  from  below  low  water  mark,  in  the 
mud.* 

In  digging  the  Santee  canal  in  South  Carolina,  the 
bones  of  a  mammoth  were  dug  up,  and  are  at 
present,  it  is  believed,  in  the  library  at  Charleston, 
together  with  other  bones  and  teeth,  which  it  is  said 
resemble  those  of  the  horse ;  but  which  more  proba- 
bly belonged  to  a  species  of  deer  or  buffaloe,  dug  out 
of  the  same  canal. 

Now  the  circumstance  of  the  fossil  bones  of  quad- 
rupeds being  found  in  an  alluvial  formation,  below,  at, 
and  a  little  above,  low  water  mark,  in  a  district  that 
has,  beyond  all  possible  doubt,  been  once  occupied  by 
the  ocean,  goes  far  to  establish  three  very  important 
facts. 

The  first  is,  these  animals,  not  having  be^n  inha- 
bitants of  the  sea,  could  not  have  been  washed  up  by 
the  ocean  and  deposited  where  they  are. 

*  For  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  1  am  indebted  to  Dr.   S.  L. 
Mitchell,  who,  while  in  Congress,  communicated  it  to  me  by  letter. 


2dly.  They  being,  or  having  been  land  animals, 
and  not  in  (he  habit  of  associating  with  whales, 
sharks,  or  porpoises,  but  being  found  with  the  re- 
mains of  these  animals,  affords  a  very  strong  presump- 
tive evidence,  that  they  must  have  been  conveyed  from 
the  primitive  soil,  or  what  was  the  ancient  continent, 
to  where  they  are  now  found. 

In  support  of  this,  M.  Cuvier,  when  speaking  of 
fossil  organic  remains  of  quadrupeds  found  upon 
islands  in  the  sea,  says,  "  When  they  (the  islands) 
contain  any  of  the  larger  quadrupeds,  these  must  have 
been  carried  to  them  from  other  countries."* 

3dly.  Since  these  animals  were  the  inhabitants  of 
dry  land,  it  is  highly  improbable  that  they  would 
voluntarily  leave  that  situation,  and  go  the  distance  at 
which  they  are  found  from  the  original  or  primitive 
borders  of  the  continent,  and  deposite  themselves 
BELOW  low  water  mark,  and  that  too  when,  probably, 
the  ocean  still  occupied  it ;  and  since  it  is  pretty  plain- 
ly proved  by  the  learned  Cuvier,  that  some  of  these 
animals,  as  the  mammoth,  were  extinct  before  mankind 
inhabited  the  earth,  they  must  have  been  carried  there 
by  force ;  and  since  no  common  means  could  have 
effected  this  operation,  we  are  compelled  to  refer  it  to 
the  operations  of  a  general  current  that  flowed  from 
the  north,  f  and  by  which,  they,  with  the  whole  mass  of 

*  Cuvier's  Theory,  page  75. 

|  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  M.  Cuvier,  at  least  suspected 
that  some  of  the  existing  phenomena  may  have  been  produced  by 


alluvial  matter,  were  swept  from  the  continent  and  de- 
posited along  on  the  borders  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Such  are  the  facts,  and  such  appear  to  be  the  only 
rational  inferences  deducible  from  them. 

But  whether  the  currents,  so  often  mentioned  in  this 
essay,  are  to  be  considered  as  having  originated  from 
the  fall  of  torrents  of  rain,  in  ceaseless  succession,  for 
the  space  of  forty  days  and  forty  nights ;  or,  as  is,  by 
some  supposed,  from  the  approximation  of  a  comet  to- 
wards the  earth  ;  or  from  the  outlet  of  the  waters  con- 
tained in  the  centre  of  the  antediluvion  earth — whe- 
ther they  originated  from  the  dissolution  of  the  polar 
ices,  under  any  possible  circumstances  ;  or  whether, 
in  fact,  the  north  pole  icas  the  great  focus,  whence 
these  currents  issued,  or  not,  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine. 

It  is  a  subject  from  which  the  human  mind,  in  the 
eager  pursuit  of  truth,  must  and  will  ever  be  re- 
pulsed :  for  the  circumstances  essentially  important  to 
its  elucidation,  are  veiled  in  impenetrable  mystery. 

We  have  before  us,  the  book  of  inspiration  ;  and  in 
it  we  are  told  of  the  universal  deluge  or  flood,  which 
by  its  operations,  was  to  destroy  every  living  thing 
that  had  been  made,  from  off  the  face  of  the  earth. 

this  or  a  similar  cause  ;  for  in  his  remarks  on  fossil  organick  re- 
mains, he  observes,  "  May  it  be  concluded,  that  the  transportation 
of  these  living  organized  bodies,  if  such  a  thing  ever  happened, 
has  taken  place  from  north  to  south,  or  from  east  to  west ;  or  was 
it  effrcted  by  means  that  irregularly  scattered  and  mingled  them 
together  ?"  (Theory  of  the  Earth,  page  66,  Am.  edition.) 


125 

In  the  great  volume  of  nature,  we  see  its  effects, 
which  appear  to  be  scattered  over  every  region,  or 
habitable  portion  of  the  globe ;  and  we  are  left  free, 
to  contemplate  and  trace  them  to  their  cause. 

These  effects,  so  multiplied  and  various,  so  ob- 
viously plain  and  intelligible,  inform  us  in  a  language 
that  cannot  be  misunderstood,  that  in  America,  they 
were  produced  by  currents  which  flowed  across  the 
continent  from  north  to  south  ;  and  in  Asia  and  a  part 
of  Europe,  from  south  to  north. 

To  these  facts,  the  attention  of  the  philosopher  and 
the  votaries  of  science  are  earnestly  invited. 

The  interest  which  they  are  calculated  to  excite, 
will  richly  compensate  for  the  trouble  of  an  investiga- 
tion ;  independently  of  the  sublime  emotions  which 
the  numerous  and  diversified  objects  of  fossil  organick 
remains,  those  "  medals  of  creation"  are  calculated 
to  inspire. 

But  this  is  not  all.  By  an  attentive  examination  of 
these  facts,  we  shall,  not  only  aid  and  assist  in  the 
great  work,*  so  happily  begun  and  advancing,  but  be 
enabled  to  trace  up,  in  successive  gradations,  and  to 
comprehend  the  various  physical  changes  that  have 
taken  place,  since  this  earth  has  been  rendered  the  fit 
habitation  of  organized  beings. 

To  attain  this  point,  we  may  be  considered  as 
having  arrived  at  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  human  sagacity 
and  penetration,  as  it  respects  the  science  of  geology. 

*  See  Parkinson's  Organick  Remains. 


126 

For,  although  it  is  admitted  that  the  Huttoniau  theory 
is,  in  some  instances,  not  without  support ;  and  that 
the  Wernerian  theory,  in  its  general  principles  ap- 
pears not  only  plausible,  but  highly  probable  ;  yet,  in 
the  discussion  of  their  merits,  it  may  be  asserted,  with- 
out fear  of  contradiction,  that  he  who  attempts  to  ex- 
plain, on  the  principles  of  either,  the  infinitely  varied 
phenomena  that  are  presented  to  view,  in  the  structure 
of  the  globe;  or  he  who  attempts  to  reconcile  the 
equally  numerous  and  varied  anomalies,  glaring  incon- 
sistencies, palpable  contradictions,  and  inexplicable 
facts,  alike  to  those  principles,  will  find  himself,  at 
last,  involved  in  a  labyrinth,  so  inconceivably  intri- 
cate, that  it  will  be  impossible  to  extricate  himself,  ex- 
cept by  plunging  headlong,  as  many  have  already 
done,  into  infidelity ;  or,  in  humble  submission,  to 
elevate  his  mind  to  the  great  author  of  creation,  and 
to  acknowledge  his  incapacity  to  comprehend  the 
works  of  Him,  6e  Whose  ways  are  unsearchable  and 
past  finding  out." 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Volcaniclc  Agency. — Very  frequent  are  the  instances 
in  which  we  hear  of  whole  districts,  in  this  country, 
that  are  supposed  to  have  been  subjected  to  the  opera- 
tions of  subterranean  fires,  if  not  actually  produced  by 
them:  and  frequently  we  hear  of  masses  of  mineral 
substances  being  found,  which  are  said  to  bear  the  un- 
equivocal marks  of  having  been  produced  by  intense 
heat.  Hence  the  conclusion,  that  they  have  been 
ejected  from  some,  now  extinct,  volcano. 

Among  the  many  of  this  description,  is  that  of  the 
West  River  Mountain,  (Conn.)  which  is  represented, 
in  the  Annals  of  the  American  Academy,  as  well  as  in 
an  American  Geography,  as  being  volcanick  ;  and  from 
this  place  specimens  have  been  preserved  as  the  sup- 
posed lava  of  this  extinct  volcano  ;  but  which  on  ex- 
amination, have  proved  to  be  nothing  more  than  he- 
rn atitic  iron  ore.* 

This  account  was,  probably,  recorded  at  a  period 
when  much  less  was  known,  in  this  country,  of  mine- 
ral substances,  than  at  the  present  time ;  and  particu- 
larly of  volcanoes  and  their  products.  Hence,  the 

*  See  Bruce's  Mineralogical  Journal,  page  19. 


128 

mistake  is  not  so  much  to  be  wondered  at,  as  that  ma- 
ny persons,  at  the  present  day,  should  persist  in  con- 
tending that  the  mammellated  and  botryoidal  hemae- 
tite  are  the  real  products  of  fire. 

Among  the  advocates  for  the  existence  and  opera- 
tions of  subterranean  fires,  earthquakes,  extinct  volca- 
noes, and  their  yawning  craters,  in  this  country,  no 
one  seems  to  be  more  prominent  and  strenuous  than 
Mr.  Volney.f 

Were  we  to  rely  upon  the  assertions  of  this  author, 
we  might  take  it  for  granted,  that  the  principal  part  of 
the  continent,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  had  been  the 
great  theatre  of  each  and  all  of  these  physical  evils ; 
for  he  not  only  points  out  the  different  districts  where 
their  effects  are  represented  as  being  manifest ;  but  to 
their  operations  he  attributes  the  "  confusion  in  which 
the  Atlantic  or  maritime  regions  are  at  present 
found  ;"f  a  region  or  district,  which,  in  point  of  order 
and  regularity,  in  the  course  and  extent  of  the  great 
and  prominent  ridges  ;  of  the  uniformity  and  corres- 
pondence in  the  order  and  succession  of  the  subordi- 
nate ranges,  and  of  their  respective  materials,  which 
may  be  traced  in  almost  uninterrupted  parallelisms 
from  one  end  of  the  district  to  the  other,  may  challenge 
a  comparison  in  any  known  portion  of  the  globe. 

This,  however,  is  not  all.     He  even  attempts  to  de- 
fine the  courses  and  limits  of  these  hidden  agents  of 

*  See  Volney's  Views  of  North  America,  page  97  to  101. 
t  Page  99. 


129 

destruction  ;  and  says,  "  The  line  of  this  subterranean 
fire  runs  north  west  and  south  east,  affecting  strongly 
the  direction  of  the  sea  and  lake  Ontario."  The  lat- 
ter of  which,  to  cap  the  climax,  he  considers,  on  ac- 
count of  its  great  depth,  as  bearing  the  most  indubita- 
ble criteria  of  its  having  been  the  great  focus  of  a 
volcano  ;  for  he  observes,  "  From  these  circumstances, 
the  inference  is  clear,  that  the  bed  of  the  lake  (Onta- 
rio,) is  the  crater  of  an  extinguished  volcano."  And 
as  a  confirmation  of  this  he  further  observes,  "  This 
conclusion  is  strengthened  by  the  many  volcanick  sub- 
stances found  upon  its  shores,  and  of  which  skilful 
eyes,  would,  no  doubt,  discover  many  other  speci- 
mens."* 

What  the  nature  and  character  of  the  substances  are, 
of  which  the  shores  of  Ontario  abound,  and  which  are 
said  to  bear  the  marks  of  volcanick  origin,  no  one  that 
1  know  of,  has,  as  yet,  undertaken  to  give  a  descrip- 
tion ;  neither  are  we  better  informed  of  the  "  numerous 
remains"  of  volcanoes,  that  are  said,  by  the  same  au- 
thor, to  exist  on  the  Alleghany  mountains. f 

If  the  lapis  suillis  or  foeted  carbonate  of  lime  con- 
stituted the  numerous  remains,  of  which  Mr.  Volney 
speaks,  he  doubtless  may  have  seen,  on  this  ridge,  the 
greatest  abundance ;  and  which,  it  is  believed,  bears  as 
close  a  resemblance  to  volcanick  products,  as  that  of 
any  other  that  can  be  found  there,  since  the  whole 


*  Volney's  View  of  America,  p.  99.        t  Do.  page  100. 

18 


130 

ridge  is  represented,  as  being  exclusively  of  a  seconda- 
ry formation. 

Without  attempting  further  comment  upon  the  opi- 
nions of  this  Great  Writer,  it  may  be  observed  that 
when  travellers  or  historians,  however  eminent  their 
acquirements,  or  elevated  their  names  and  reputa- 
tion, attempt  a  description  of  the  geology  of  a  country 
and  its  minerals,  and  we  hear  them  substitute  the 
term  "  tale  bank,"  or  "  bed  of  isinglass,"*  for  a  gra- 
ni'  «ck  ridge  five  miles  in  width  and  several  hundred 
miles  in  length — when,  moreover,  we  hear  them 
speak  of  "  granite  marble,?'t  an(l  u  calcareous  gra- 
nite,":): we  have  much  reason  to  suspect,  that  their 
knowledge  of  the  subject  is  extremely  superficial  or 
inadequate  ;  or  that  they  have  acquired  their  informa- 
tion, on  this  subject,  from  some  source  out  of  the  com- 
mon order ;  or  one  that  is  not  known  and  recognised 
by  the  geologists  of  the  present  day. 

The  geology  of  this  country,  as  well  as  that  of  al- 
most every  other,  presents  numerous  appearances  that 
are  calculated  to  mislead  a  superficial  observer,  and 
to  induce  a  belief,  that  they  were  decidedly  of  volca- 
nick  origin  :  while  a  more  careful  investigation,  by  a 
more  experienced  eye,  would  produce  a  contrary  be- 
lief. 

The  Chevalier  Lammanon  was  so  firmly  convinced 
that  the  trap  formation  of  the  Alps  of  Champsaur, 

*  Volney's  View,  p.  100.         f  See  Shaw's  Travels. 
\  Ali  Be^'s  Travels. 


131 

was  of  volcanick  origin,  that  he  wrote  and  published  a 
work  in  support  of  his  theory. 

But  a  more  mature  reflection  and  critical  examina- 
tion of  the  substances,  produced  a  conviction  of  his 
errours  in  a  degree  so  forcible,  that  he  not  only  sup- 
pressed but  destroyed  the  whole  edition,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  twelve  copies.* 

Although  it  is  very  much  doubted  whether  subter- 
ranean fires  and  volcanoes  ever  existed  in  this  country, 
east  of  the  Mississippi  ;  yet  it  will  readily  be  ad- 
mitted that  many  instances  have  occurred,  in  which 
substances  have  presented  themselves,  bearing  strong 
marks  of  their  having  been  subjected  to  the  opera- 
tions of  intense  heat ;  and  hence  have  been  consider- 
ed as  of  volcanick  origin. 

In  a  number  of  places  in  the  secondary  range  which 
runs  through  the  state  of  Connecticut,  masses  of  this 
kind  may  be  found. 

In  the  town  of  North-ford,  I  believe,  numerous 
fragments  of  this  description  may  be  seen  in  passing 
along  the  road.  They  are  composed  of  an  extremely 
porous  trap  or  whinstone,  which  actually  appears  to 
have  been  in  a  state  of  fusion  ;  but  which,  however, 
on  a  close  examination,  will  not,  from  a  variety  of  cir- 
cumstances, justify  such  a  conclusion.  Among  these 
the  following  are  not  of  the  least  importance. 

The  blocks  which  1  had  an  opportunity  of  examin- 
ing, were,  probably,  detached  portions  of  the  great 

*  See  St.  Fund's  Travels,  vol.  I.  page  23. 


132 

mass  that  forms  the  upper  part  of  the  ridge  extending 
from  New  Haven,  into  Massachusetts,  commonly 
called  the  West  Mountain.  This  part  of  the  ridge  is 
composed  of  trap  or  whinstone.  In  some  parts  it  as- 
sumes a  columnar  form,  standing  almost  perpendicu- 
larly. In  others,  it  is  composed  of  enormous  broken 
and  shapeless  masses  of  the  same  materials,  slightly 
connected,  and  easily  broken  up ;  and  among  which, 
may  be  found  in  abundance,  splendid  specimens  of 
phrenite,  zeolite,  &c.  particularly  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Simsbury. 

Among  this  latter  kind  of  trap,  a  great  quantity 
may  be  found,  filled  with  small  spherical  masses  of 
zeolite ;  on  being  long  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  and 
changes  of  weather,  the  zeolite  is  probably  decom- 
posed and  disappears,  leaving  a  complete  porous 
mass  which  much  resembles  the  bulleuse  lava,  and  as 
such,  it  is  well  calculated  to  impress  a  belief  of  its 
bavins;  been,  at  least,  modified  by  the  agency  of  sub- 
terranean heat  or  fire.  But  all  ideas  however  of  this 
kind  are  dispelled,  when  we  examine  the  structure  of 
this  mountain,  and  find,  that  its  base  for  many  leagues 
in  breadth,  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  old  red 
sand  stone ;  the  most  decided  and  unequivocal  evi- 
dence, on  the  contrary,  of  its  Neptunean  origin. 

The  part  in  particular  on  which  the  ridge  of  trap 
rests,  is,  in  many  places,  considerably  more  elevated 
than  the  adjacent  country,  particularly  at  New  Grate 
in  the  town  of  Granby,  and  having  a  dip  or  declina- 
tion, of  from  thirty  to  forty-five  degrees  to  the  east. 


133 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  seems  impossible  that 
either  the  columnar,  or  irregular  and  porous  trap  can 
owe  its  origin  to,  or  even  be  modified  by,  the  agency 
of  subterranean  heat,  while  its  substruction,  the  red 
sand-stone,  discovers  not  the  least  possible  indication 
of  a  similar  agency. 

It  is  this  important  ridge  or  mountain,  bounded  on 
the  east  and  on  the  west,  by  others  composed  of  primi- 
tive and  transition  rocks,  which  renders  the  mineralogy 
and  geology  of  Connecticut  so  highly  and  particularly 
interesting ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  gives  to  New 
H.iven  a  decided  superiority  over  any  other  situation 
in  the  United  States,  for  the  cultivation  of  those  two 
sciences. 

From  Yale  College,  that  fountain  of  literature,  and 
where  those  two  sciences  are  cultivated  with  the  most 
happy  success  ;  an  individual,  or  the  whole  mineral- 
ogical  class  may,  in  the  space  of  two  hours  enter 
upon  the  primitive  range ;  observe  and  examine 
through  the  various  gradations  and  transitions,  the 
order,  structure,  and  arrangement  of  the  various  strata 
that  compose  it. 

From  thence,  in  a  short  space  of  time,  they  enter 
upon  the  secondary  district,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
West  Rock,  (so  called)  the  base  of  which  is  red  sand- 
stone, they  contemplate  with  mingled  emotions  of  awe 
and  pleasure,  the  abrupt  and  lofty  battlements  of  colum- 
nar trap,  whose  mouldering  fragments  have,  for  ages 
past,  been  tributary  to  the  soil  below  ;  and  on  the  sur- 
face of  which,  vast  masses,  burst  off  by  the  frost 


134 

from  the  heights  above,  are  still  lying  in  undisturbed 
disorder. 

From  thence  they  can  ascend  the  height,  and  from 
its  lofty  summit,  behold,  in  one  extensive  view,  all  the 
varieties  of  the  most  prominent  and  important  features 
that  are  embraced  in  the  science  of  geology. 

On  the  left,  to  the  south  east,  is  a  range  of  hills, 
being,  probably,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  East 
Mountains,  so  called,  composed  mostly  of  granite 
differently  modified. 

Immediately  on  the  left,  to  the  east,  is  the  east 
rock,  which,  like  the  height  from  which  it  is  viewed, 
is  secondary  and  composed  likewise  of  different  sub- 
stances. 

On  the  right,  to  the  west  and  south,  is  seen  a 
range  of  bold  hills,  composed  principally  of  am- 
phibolic rocks  variously  modified ;  and  also  some 
others,  which  together,  form  an  extensively  interest- 
ing field  of  study  to  the  geologist.  Besides  these, 
the  districts  which  1  have  mentioned  contain  a  very 
extensive  variety  of  minerals  common  to  these  forma- 
tions, which  render  the  district  equally  as  interesting 
to  the  mineralogist. 

Immediately  in  front,  and  as  it  were  at  the  feet  of 
the  observer,  lies  the  beautifully  extended  plain  on 
which  New-Haven  stands,  which  is  perfectly  alluvial. 

Under  such  circumstances,  and  possessing  such 
superiour  advantages;  it  may  safely  challenge  a  com- 
petition with  any  other  situation  in  the  United  States, 
as  being  best  calculated  for  a  raineralogical  and  geo- 


135 

logical  school ;  and,  while  conducted  by  one  whose 
conciliatory  manners,  zeal,  and  unceasing  exertions 
in  the  cause  of  science,  are  so  universally  known, 
we  may  safely  predict  that  the  time  is  not  far  dis- 
tant when  it  may  vie  with  the  Wernerian  school,  and 
become  the  Friberg  of  America. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


the  different  formations,  8fc. — Hitherto,  Geolo- 
gists, in  giving  a  description  of  the  different  materials 
that  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  globe,  and  also 
of  its  formation,  have  pretty  much  confined  their  views 
to  two  grand  divisions,  (viz.)  the  primitive  and  secon- 
dary; the  first  of  these  having  a  reference  to  such 
rocks  as  are  destitute  of  organick  remains ;  and  the 
last,  to  such  as  are  composed  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree of  organick  remains.  In  these,  the  subject  of 
alluvial  deposites,  which  is  in  itself,  to  a  certain  de- 
gree, a  formation,  is  left  entirely  out  of  view,  or  if 
taken  notice  of,  it  is  in  connexion  with  all  secondary 
formations.  But  in  a  careful  examination  of  the  sub- 
ject, I  can  see  no  impropriety  in  considering  it  as  a 
distinct  formation,  and  as  justly  entitled  to  the  appel- 
lation of  ternary,  as  the  latter  of  the  other  two,  to  that 
of  secondary. 

The  idea  of  alluvial  formations  or  deposites  being 
considered  as  a  third  or  ternary  formation,  and  dis- 
tinct from  the  other  two,  may  be  objected  to  on  the  score 
of  its  being,  in  general,  made  up  of  materials  already 


137 

previously  formed.  The  same  may  be  said  of  secondary 
or  shell  lime-stone,  and  several  other  secondary  rocks  i 
and  who  can  say  that  the  several  constituent  parts  of 
the  primitive  rocks  were  not  formed,  previously  to  their 
aggregation  ? 

2dly.  It  may  be  objected  to,  on  account  of  the  diffe- 
rence in  the  several  results,  that  are  manifested  in 
rocks  of  secondary  formation,  and  those  of  alluvial 
districts. 

3dly.  It  may  be  objected  to,  on  the  score,  that  while 
secondary  formations  are  the  results  of  a  natural  ope- 
ration ;  alluvial  formations  are  the  results  of  accidental 
operations,  consequently,  differing  materially  in  their 
essential  characters. 

With  regard  to  the  first  objection,  the  remarks  which 
I  have  already  advanced  in  reply,  I  consider  quite 
sufficient. 

In  reply  to  the  second,  it  may  be  necessary,  in  the 
first  place,  to  observe,  that  by  "  the  difference  in  the 
several  results,"  I  have  a  reference  to  the  various  ma- 
terials that  enter  into  the  composition  of  secondary  and 
alluvial  formations,  and  their  different  modifications. 
In  this  respect,  it  must  be  admitted  that  a  very  great 
difference  exists,  not  only  in  their  texture  and  composi- 
tion, but  in  the  process  of  their  formation.  Yet  as 
great  as  it  is,  the  difference  between  alluvial  and  se- 
condary formations,  is  not  greater  than  that  between  se- 
condary and  primitive. 

To  place  the  subject  in  a  proper  light,  it  may  not  be 
amiss  to  present  a  slight  view  of  the  two  formations 

19 


138 

separately.  Rocks  of  secondary  formation  are  va- 
rious, but  I  shall  only  take  notice  of  such  as  contain 
organick  remains  ;  such  as  secondary  or  shell  lime- 
stone, containing  various  species  of  shell-fish  and  other 
animals,  completely  changed  in  their  nature,  and,  by 
being  combined  with  carbonate  of  lime,  formed  into  a 
compact  or  solid  mass,  and  susceptible  of  being  wrought 
into  various  shapes  or  forms,  and  of  being  converted  to 
sundry  useful  purposes. 

Also,  secondary  gypsum,  containing  impressions  of 
a  variety  of  fishes>  and  animals  ;  likewise,  seconda- 
ry slate,  containing  perfect  impressions  of  fishes  and  of 
various  vegetable  substances,  which,  though  changed 
in  substance,  have  suffered  no  change  in  form. 

In  these  several  rocks  are  often  found  different  mi- 
neral substances,  such  as  lead,  zinc,  &c. 

The  alluvial  formation  is  generally  composed  of 
sand,  gravel,  and  rolled  pebbles  of  different  kinds. 

In  this  formation,  notwithstanding  its  being,  as  I 
have  observed,  the  result  of  an  accidental  operation, 
we  likewise  see  the  mineralizing  powers  exerted, 
though  in  a  far  weaker  degree,  and  the  process  of  new 
formations  carried  on,  though  upon  a  much  smaller 
scale,  and  to  a  far  less  extent. 

In  this  formation,  we  find  beds  of  bituminous  wood, 
and  coal ;  petrified  wood  ;  immense  beds  of  variously 
coloured  clays  ;  extensive  mines  or  beds  of  fine  argil- 
laceous, and  bog  iron  ores  ;  beautiful  crystals  of  sele- 
nite,  &c.  These  and  many  other  substances  are  found 
in  place  in  various  parts  of  the  great  alluvial  district, 


139 

on  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  only  alluvial  rocks  that 
are  found  in  this  district,  are  those  of  sand  stone, 
which  are  evidently  the  results  of  an  alluvial  forma- 
tion. 

In  alluvial  deposites,  in  almost  every  country,  are 
likewise  found,  immense  quantities  of  animal  remains, 
though  in  a  state  very  different  from  those  which  are 
found  in  secondary  formations. 

I  have  remarked,  that  secondary  formations  are,  ge- 
nerally, the  results  of  a  natural  operation,  or  in  other 
words,  they  are  natural  deposites  from  water,  proba- 
bly, in  a  state  of  perfect  tranquillity.  And  that  allu- 
vial formations  are  the  results  of  accidental  operations  ; 
for  in  almost  all  instances,  they  are  amassed  and  form- 
ed by  the  operations  of  currents,  which  have  been  pro- 
duced by  natural  or  accidental  causes. 

I  have  also  remarked  that  a  great  difference  exists, 
not  only  in  their  texture  and  composition,  but  in  the 
process  of  their  formation. 

This  is  so  striking,  that  while  it  constitutes  a  dis- 
tinctive characteristick  between  the  two  formations,  it 
affords  an  interesting  subject  of  inquiry,  as  to  the  prin- 
ciples, by  which  secondary  and  alluvial  rocks,  and  the 
animal  and  vegetable  substances  therein  contained, 
were  solidified ;  and  also,  the  difference  of  time  requir- 
ed in  their  productions. 

It  is,  I  believe,  a  prevailing  opinion  with  many,  that 
almost  all  secondary  rocks,  as  well  as  those  of  the  pri- 
mitive kind,  must  have  required  a  long  and  tedious 
process  in  their  formation,  by  precipitations,  crystali- 


110 

zation,  &c.  and  which  must  have  occupied  an  immense 
period  of  time  for  their  completion. 

How  it  may  be  with  primitive  rocks,  I  shall  not  at- 
tempt to  say  in  the  present  instance  ;  but  -a  careful  ex- 
amination of  the  structure  of  the  secondary  kind,  which 
I  have  already  mentioned,  will  by  no  means  justify  such 
an  opinion.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  certain  indica- 
tions in  many  of  them,  which  justly  warrant  the  belief, 
that  their  formation  must  have  been  inconceivably  quick 
and  rapid,  and  particularly  those  which  contained  the 
remains  of  organized  bodies  of  fishes  and  other  ani- 
mals, in  a  state  of  preservation  so  perfect,  as  to  enable 
the  naturalist  to  determine,  on  the  slightest  inspection, 
the  class,  order,  and  species,  to  which  they  severally 
belong. 

This  conclusion  is  drawn  from  the  following  cir- 
cumstances : 

1st.  Fishes  and  other  animals,  found  enveloped  in 
solid  limestone,  plaster,  or  slate,  and  possessing  their 
natural  form  and  character,  afford  strong  reasons  to 
conclude,  that  had  the  precipitation  and  formation  of 
the  rock,  or  substance  in  which  they  are  contained, 
been  slow  or  gradual,  the  superincumbent  weight  must 
have  had  a  great  tendency  to  have  destroyed  their  na- 
tural form,  by  compressing  them,  while  soft  and  yield- 
ing, into  a  thin  and  almost  shapeless  mass. 

But  this  is  not  the  case.  We  see  innumerable  in- 
stances in  the  sections  of  various  kinds  of  secondary 
marbles  of  Europe,  where  different  species  of  the 
tribes  of  molluscae  and  shell  fish,  are  represented  al- 
most as  perfect,  in  every  particular  that  relates  to  their 


141 

form  and  structure,  as  when  living ;  except,  that  their 
substance  is  changed  into  perfect  carbonate  of  lime,  or 
like  the  substances  which  surrounds  them.  This  is  so 
common,  and  so  often  met  with  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
mention  any  particular  case. 

Sdly.  Lapidified  fishes  have  been  found  in  numerous 
instances,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  inveloped 
in  gypsum  and  slate  rocks  ;  possessing  all  their  char- 
acters, as  it  respects  their  form,  size,  stripes,  marks, 
spots,  and  even  colours,  in  some  specimens,  so  perfect 
as  to  enable  the  experienced  naturalist  to  determine 
the  species  to  which  they  belong  almost  at  sight. 

"Petrified  fishes  have  been  discovered  in  solid 
rocks  in  the  very  attitude  of  seizing  and  swallowing 
their  prey."* 

In  a  specimen  obtained  from  Vestena  Nuova  and 
exhibited  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris, 
'-is  seen  a  pike  which  has  died  with  another  fish  of  the 
same  species  still  in  his  throat.?Jf 

"  Many  of  the  fossil  fishes  found  in  the  slates  of  La 
Bolca,  have,  from  their  state  of  preservation,  been  re- 
cognized as  belonging,  in  particular,  to  those  of  the 
south  sea."f 

"  A  workman,  in  attempting  to  square  a  stone,  ob- 
tained by  demolishing  the  Abbey  of  Vaucelles,  split  it 
into  two  parts  ;  one  of  which  exhibited  the  impression 

*  See  Bakewell's  Introduction  to  Geology,  p.  442, 

-  See  Parkenson's  Organick  Remains,  Vol.  3,  p.  252. 
t  See  Shirwan's  Geological  Essays,  p.  71. 


of  a  fish,  and  the  other  the  fish  in  relief.  The  fish 
was  examined  by  the  professors  of  the  College  of 
Cambray,  who  repaired  on  purpose  to  the  spot.  It  re- 
sults from  their  observations,  that  it  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  best  preserved  ichthyolites  ever  found. 
It  is  from  twenty  eight  to  thirty  one  inches  in  length, 
and  seven  inches  in  breadth." 

"  Every  circumstance  gives  reason  to  think,  that  it 
belongs  to  the  class  of  the  abdominals,  and  that  it  is  a 
salmon.  The  scales  are  of  a  violet  colour  mixed  with 
yellow  :  a  latteral  line  of  a  pale  white,  and  nearer  the 
back  than  the  belly,  traverses  the  whole  body,  and  des- 
cribes on  it  a  curve.  The  colours  of  the  impression 
are  the  same  as  those  on  the  relief."* 

"  Our  country  hath  lately  afforded  (says  Mr.  Jones) 
what  1  apprehend  to  be  the  greatest  curiosity  of  this 
sort,  that  ever  yet  appeared.  It  is  the  entire  figure  of 
a  Bream  more  than  a  foot  in  length,  and  of  a  propor- 
tionable depth,  with  scales,  fins,  and  gills,  fairly  pro- 
jecting from  the  surface  like  a  piece  of  sculpture  in 
relievo,  and  with  all  the  lineaments,  even  to  the  most 
minute  fibres  of  the  tail,  so  complete,  that  the  like  has 
not  been  seen  before.  It  was  taken  from  the  stone 
quarries  of  Barrow  in  Linconshire,  &c."f 

From  these  few  cases  of  fossil  fishes  selected  from 
many,  so  palpable  and  strikingly  interesting  in  their 
kind,  we  may  reasonably  infer  that  their  inhumation 

*Tilloch's  Philosophical  Magazine,  Vol.  18,  p.  371. 
tSee  Parkinson's  Organic  Remains  Vol.  3  p.  250. 


143 

and  the  subsequent  process  of  their  petrification  must 
have  been  the  result  of  an  operation  as  rapid  in  its 
progress  as  incomprehensible  in  its  nature  :  for,  sup- 
posing the  substance,  of  which  the  rocks  that  contain 
petrified  fishes,  are  composed,  were  to  be  precipitated 
or  deposited  from  any  menstruum,  according  to  our 
ideas  of  that  process,  it  is  both  morally  and  physically 
impossible  for  any  dead  animal  substance  to  retain  all 
its  natural  characters,  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  ad- 
mit the  lapidification  of  the  rocks  and  the  animal  sub- 
stance itself,  without  a  material  change  or  alteration, 
except,  at  a  temperature  but  little  short  of  the  freezing 
point. 

Almost  all  dead  animal  bodies  when  entire,  and  par- 
ticularly fishes,  will  remain  but  a  very  little  time  in  fresh 
water,  without  being  subjected  to  three  material  chan- 
ges ;  neither  of  which  are  discoverable,  that  I  know  of, 
in  petrified  fishes. 

In  the  first  place,  they  all  become  more  or  less 
bloated,  a  mark  which  I  have  never  seen  mentioned  as 
it  respects  fossil  fish.  This,  however,  would  depend 
on  the  degree  of  temperature  of  the  medium  to  which 
they  may  be  subjected. 

Sdly.  They  very  soon  change  in  colour,  and  become 
of  a  pale  white  ;  the  eyes  sink  and  assume  a  livid  ap- 
pearance. 

3dly.  Every  part  except  the  scales  in  fishes  soon 
discovers  a  progressive  state  of  dissolution,  which 
tends  rapidly  to  mutilate  or  destroy  the  characters 


essentially  necessary  to  determine  ^he  species  to  which 
they  belong. 

Neither  of  these  marks,  we  may  reasonably  con- 
clude, are  observable  in  the  cases  which  1  have  quoted, 
for  they  are  represented  as  being  entire  and  perfect ; 
and  some  of  them  transformed  or  changed,  while  in  the 
very  act  of  seizing  and  enjoying  their  prey. 

It  may  be  said,  by  some,  that  during  the  formation 
of  those  rocks,  which  contain  the  fossil  remains  of 
bodies  so  perfect,  the  earth  was  covered  with  salt  wa- 
ter— but,  even  if  admitted,  it  is  no  better  calculated  to 
preserve  those  bodies  from  dissolution,  than  if  subject- 
ed the  same  time  and  at  the  same  temperature,  to  fresh 
water.  The  water  of  the  Ocean,  although  salt,  does 
not  constitute  a  pickle  by  which  animal  substances  can 
be  preserved  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  almost,  if  not  equal- 
ly as  unfavorable  to  the  preservation  of  animal  matter 
as  that  of  fresh  water. 

Hence  the  conclusion,  that  many  of  the  secondary 
rocks,  and  perhaps  some  others,  were,  in  their  forma- 
tion, regulated  by  principles,  or  subject  to  laws  that 
were  instantaneous  in  their  operations,  and  during 
which,  the  whole,  mass  of  matter  within  the  sphere  of 
their  action,  whether  stony,  earthy,  animal,  or  vegeta- 
ble, was  suddenly  changed  into  a  solidified  mass. 

That  some  invisible  and  incomprehensible  means 
have  been  employed  in  this  business,  may  be  inferred 
from  the  opinions  of  several. 

The  learned  Cuvier,  when  speaking  "of  incrusta- 
tions" of  bodies,  observes,  "  But  we  have  no  evidence 


that  the  sea  has  now  the  power  of  agglutinating  these 
shells  by  such  a  compact  paste,  or  indurated  cement, 
as  that  found  in  marbles  and  calcareous  sand-stones, 
or  even  in  the  coarse  lime-stone  strata  in  which  shells 
are  found  enveloped.  Still  less  do  we  now  find  the 
sea  making  any  depositions  at  all  of  the  more  solid 
and  silicious  strata  which  have  preceded  the  formation 
of  the  strata  containing  shells."* 

It  is  believed  by  some,  that  volcanoes  or  subterra. 
nean  fires  have  been  powerful  agents  in  the  produc- 
tion of  these  phenomena ;  and  it  is  said  of  the  speci- 
men of  the  pike  that  was  found  at  Vestena  Nuova, 
and  now  in  the  museum  of  natural  history  at  Paris, 
that  its  instantaneous  death  is  supposed  to  have  been 
produced  by  a  sudden  volcanick  irruption  into  the 
water,  at  the  moment  of  its  having  swallowed  its 

prey.f 

How  far  this  opinion  is  entitled  to  credit,  we  are 
left  to  determine  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  Ves- 
tena Nuova  contains  thousands,  and  perhaps  millions 
of  fossil  fishes  of  various  kinds,  in  all  situations,  and 
at  different  depth  in  the  rocks.  Now  it  would  have 
been,  not  only  an  unlucky,  but  truly  a  singular  event, 
if  so  many  myriads  of  them  should  have  been  caught 
by  "  a  sudden  volcanick  irruption  into  the  water"  and 
preserved  perfect  and  entire,  until  deposited  in  their 


*  Cuvier's  Theory  of  the  Earth,  page  34,  London  edition. 
t  Parkinson's  Organick  Remains,  vol.  Hi.  page  252. 
20 


146 

different  situations  in  the   rocks,  and  there  retained 
until  the  whole  mass  was  lapidified. 

JBut  admitting  that  the  pike  in  question,  with  all  the 
others  in  the  Vestena  IS  nova ;    with  those  found  in  the 
slate  of  La  Bolca,  and  in  the  copper  slate  pf  Thurin- 
gia,   which  is  full  of  them  ;  also  those  in  the  stink- 
stone  slate  of  Oenigen  ;   and  of  Verona ;   the  black 
slate  of  Glacis ;  of  the  white  slate  of  Acihstedt,   the 
plaster   quarries    about  Paris,     and  numerous    other 
places,   together   with  the   singular   specimen  of  the 
bream  and  salmon  which  I  have  mentioned,    was  kill- 
ed by  a  sudden  volcanick  irruption  into  the  water,  it 
does  not  explain,  by  any  means,  the  modus  operandi, 
by    which  they  were  preserved    perfect,  until  they, 
with  the  surrounding  matter  were  changed  into  rocks 
and  petrified  masses.     I  do  not  wish  it  to  be  under- 
stood that  in  all  the  instances  which  I  have  enumerat- 
ed, the  fishes  are  petrified  ;  in  many  they  only  present 
beautiful  and  accurate  impressions. 

That  thousands  of  fishes  have  been  killed  by  sub- 
marine volcanoes,  or  by  a  discharge  of  electrick  fluid 
from  the  depth  of  the  ocean,  there  can  be  no  doabt  ;* 

*  The  following  interesting  facts  are  related  by  Mr.  Salt  as 
having  occurred  in  his  passage  from  Mosambique,  to  Aden  near  the 
straits  of  Babel  mandel. — *•  At  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  when 
distant  about  five  leagues  from  land,  we  met  with  a  shoal  of  dead 
fish,  many  thousands  of  which  lay  floating  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  we  continued  to  pass  through  them  about  Jive  and  thirty 
minutes,  Bailing  at  the  rate  of  tw<*  leagues  in  the  hour.  Many  of 
these  fish  were  of  a  large  size,  and  of  several  species,  chiefly  of  the 


but  to  place  them  in  the  situation  and  order  in  which 
they  are  found,  and  to  change  their  substance,  with 
the  surrounding  matter,  into  solid  stone,  seem?  to 
require  the  existence  of  laws,  and  the  operation  of 
agents  of  which  no  human  mind  has,  hitherto,  formed 
a  just  conception. 

AVhat  were  the  principles  of  those  laws,  or  the  na- 
ture and  character  of  the  agents  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  these  wonderful  phenomena,  it  would  be 
not  only  hazardous  but  the  height  of  folly,  in  the 
present  instance,  to  attempt  a  definition  Opinions, 
however,  have  been  advanced  on  a  subject  intimately, 
if  not  immediately  allied,  and  some  of  which  are 
truly  worthy  of  notice. 

La  Place,  in  his  "  Exposition  du  systeme  du 
monde,  tome  zd,  page  301,  in  8vo,  asserts  that  the 
terrestrial  globe,  with  the  other  planetary  bodies  has 
been  formed  by  the  concretion  of  an  aeriform  fluid 
emanating  from  the  sun. 

Of  this  opinion,  however,  1  have  nothing  to  say,  no 
further  at  least,  than  to  observe,  that  from  it,  it  is  pie- 
genera  sparus,  labrus,  and  tetrodon.  They  bore  the  appearance  of 
not  having  been  long  killed,  from  the  freshness  of  their  colour  and 
the  redness  ot  their  gills. 

•'  In  the  evening  we  passed  another  shoal  of  dead  fish,  which  had 
become  quite  white  and  putrid."  Of  the  cause  of  the  death  of 
these  fishes  there  can  remain  no  doubt ;  yet,  Mr.  Salt  observes, 
«;  an  otcurrecjce  of  t:«is  nature  is  extremely  raie,  especially  in 
deep  water,  and  1  cannot  in  any  way  account  for  it.*'  (Salt's  Tra- 
vels, page  81.) 


148 

slimed,  Patrin  conceived  his  ideas  of  the  formation  of 
many  of  the  earthy  and  crystalline  substances,  ejected 
from  volcanoes,  which  is  not,  however,  by  the  opera- 
tion of  heat,  but,  by  the  combination  of  various 
gaseous  fluids,  assisted,  or  modified  by  electricity. 

On  this  subject  his  reasoning  is  forcible,  clear,  and 
scientifick,  and  in  many  instances  strengthened,  by  well 
attested  facts,  collected  from  the  observations  of  several 
distinguised  naturalists,  as  eminent  for  scientifick  ac- 
quirements, as  of  sound  philosophy. 

Among  these,  Buck,  in  an  excellent  memoir,  has 
demonstrated,  with  every  appearance  of  truth,  that 
the  leucites,  so  very  abundant  in  the  lavas  and  tufas  of 
Italy,  are  of  a  formation  subsequent  to  the  ejectment  of 
the  lavas. 

Faber,  and  other  enlightened  naturalists  are  like- 
wise of  the  opinion,  that  those  crystals  were  of  a  sub- 
sequent formation,  to  that  of  the  ejection  of  the  lavas. 

Mr.  Thompson  remarks,  that  he  observed  accicular 
crystals  of  augite,  sublimed  and  adhering  to  the 
walls  of  a  church,  which  was  buried  by  the  lava  of 
Vesuvius  in  1794.  A  circumstance  that  proves.,  incon- 
testibly,  the  formation  of  crystalline  substances  inde- 
pendently of  the  agency  of  water  ;  and  most  proba- 
bly by  a  combination  of  aeriform  fluids. 

The  interesting  account  which  the  learned  Dolomieu 
has  given  of  the  volcano  of  Stromboli,  in  one  of  the 
^.olian  isles,  and  Macalouba,  near  Agregente  in 
Sicily,  affords  abundant  proofs  of  the  daily  formation 
of  earthy  and  stony  substances,  by  the  combination  of 


149 

aeriform,  or  gaseous  fluids  assisted,  probably,  by  the 
operations  of  electricity.* 

A  short  time  after  Patrin  hadread  before  the  Natio- 
nal Institute  his  memoir  or  theory  of  volcanoes,  Guyton 
Jllorveau,  rendered  to  the  Institute,  at  the  setting  of  the 
6  floreal,  Ann.  3,  (26th  April,  1800,)  an  account  of  va- 
rious experiments  made  under  his  own  eyes,  which 
proves,  ist.  <•  That  lime  is  composed  of  azote,  hydro- 
gen, and  charbon." 

2d.  "  That  Magnesia  is  composed  of  lime  and  azote, 
(i  e.)  of  the  same  elements  as  lime,  with  a  superabun- 
dance of  azote." 

3d.  "  That  Soda  is  composed  of  magnesia  and  hy- 
drogen." 

4th.  "  That  Potash  is  composed  of  lime  and  carbo* 
nated  hydrogen. "f 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy  has,  however,  by  a  series  of 
successful  experiments,  since  proved  what  Humboldt 
and  Lavoisier  had  long  ago  suspected  of  the  earths  in 
general,  that,  at  least,  some  of  them  are  composed  of 
metallick  oxids. 

This  may  possibly  be  true,  with  respect  to  all  the 
earths,  without  invalidating  in  the  least,  the  opinion 
that  all  earthy  and  metallick  substances  may  have  been 
formed  by  a  combination  of  aeriform  or  gaseous  fluids, 
modified  or  assisted  by  electricity. 

*  Se*3;  his  account  of  the  Lipari  Islands,  pages  113  and  153. 
t  Patrin,  vol.  V,  page  223. 


150 

Humboldt  found  by  experiments,  that  the  gas  which 
he  had  collected  in  the  mines  contained  iron  in  so- 
lution.* 

He  likewise  detected  an  earth  in  solution,  in  what 
is  termed  the  electrick  rain  waters,  f 

But  waving  all  comments  on  the  above  experiments, 
and  admitting  the  possibility  of  earthy  and  metallick 
substances  being  formed  in  the  small  way,  or  upon  a 
small  scale,  by  a  combination  of  aeriform  fluids,  modi- 
fied or  assisted  either  by  electricity,  or  anj  other  agent, 
we  hazard  nothing  in  saying  that  similar  results  may 
be  expected  from  the  operation  of  the  same  agents  up- 
on the  large  scale.  Indeed,  a  careful  and  attentive 
view  of  the  subject,  at  least,  so  far  as  relates  to  that 
class  of  rocks  which  I  have  mentioned,  will  justify  the 
conclusion,  that  some  analogous  process  must  have  been 
employed  in  the  formation  of  those  districts  which  con- 
tain, in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  in  an  infinite  va- 
riety, organick  remains  of  animals  completely  lapidi- 
fied, and  in  a  state  of  preservation  so  perfect,  that  eve- 
ry essential  characteristick  of  their  several  species  is 
still  retained. 

Such  a  state  of  things  seems,  conclusively,  to  be  in- 
compatible with  the  igneous,  or  humid  process  of  for- 
mation, particularly  the  latter,  and  for  reasons  which  I 
have  already  advanced. 

That  a  change  of  matter,  or  the  formation  of  sub- 
stances, upon  a  scale  so  extensive,  and,  at  the  same 

*  Patrin,  vol.  V,  page  252.  f  Vol.  V,  page  255. 


151 

time,  so  stupendous  in  its  kind  and  appearance,  should 
be  produced  by  the  operation  or  agency  of  either  elec- 
tricity, or  galvanism,  separately  or  combined,  seems, 
to  our  limited  understandings,  not  only  incomprehensi- 
ble, but  both  morally  and  physically  impossible. 

But  from  the  vague  and  imperfect  knowledge  which 
we  at  present  possess,  of  the  power  and  operations  of 
those  agents,  particularly  the  former,  wre  are  incapable 
of  forming  an  adequate  conception  of  their  operations 
and  effects  in  the  great  scale  of  nature. 

Yet  from  the  knowledge  we  have  acquired  of  the 
subject,  if  we  reflect  upon  the  surprising  results  produc- 
ed by  the  operations  of  these  two  powerful  agents, 
while,  under  the  management  and  control  of  man,  and 
which  are  daily  made  manifest  to  our  senses,  what 
may  we  not  expect  from  them,  when  under  the  direc- 
tion and  control  of  Omnipotence.  Results  the  most 
stupendous  and  awful  have  been,  but  too  often,  wit- 
nessed in  almost  every  part  of  the  world,  and  such  as 
to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  any  one,  that  others 
still  greater  and  of  a  more  novel  kind,  may  have  been 
the  effects  of  their  operations ;  such  as  the  formation  of 
whole  districts,  which  have  suddenly  risen,  new  form- 
ed, above  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  embracing  in  their 
limits,  millions  of  organised  bodies,  that  have  been 
•aught  in  the  solidified  mass. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


«#  general  current  having  prevailed,  $fc. — Not  only 
does  this  continent  present  abundant  and  undeniable 
proofs  of  the  prevalence  of  currents,  both  impetuous 
and  extensive,  over  its  surface,  but  also  that  of  al- 
most every  other  in  the  known  world,  that  has  been 
visited  by  men,  capable  of  observing  and  tracing 
the  effects  of  their  operations.  Yet.  strange  as  it  may 
appear,  few  indeed  have  ventured,  after  having  point- 
ed out  their  effects  to  explain  the  cause  of  these  cur- 
rents, the  source  from  whence  they  flowed,  the  course 
which  they  pursued,  or  the  periods  of  time  at  which* 
they  probably  may  have  existed. 

Had  a  Telas,  Gmelin,  Cronstedt,  Faber,  Pallas, 
Charpentier,  Born,  Werner,  Arduino,  l)e  Luc,  Saus- 
sure,  Patrin,  or  a  Dolomieu,  turned  their  attention 
more  particularly  to  this  subject,  they  might  have  ren- 
dered still  more  important  and  essential  services,  to 
the  science  of  Geology,  by  lifting  the  veil  that  ob- 
scures from  our  present  view,  the  mysterious  phenom- 
ena that  are  involved  in  this  interesting  subject,  and 
thereby  enabling  us  to  contemplate  it  in  a  Light,  more 
consistent  with  truth  and  philosophy. 


153 

Had  they,  in  their  travels,  sought  after  facts  that 
point  out  the  existence  of  once  powerful  currents  which 
swept  over  islands  and  continents,   lifted  rocks   from 
their  firm  foundation,  and  buried  whole  forests  at  an 
immense  depth  beneath  the  surface  of  new  formed  dis- 
tricts, that  have  been  suddenly  amassed  by  their  op- 
erations, they  would,   long  since  have  furnished  us 
with  numerous  corresponding  truths,  which,  on  com- 
parison, would  be  found  to  harmonize  with  those  of  a 
similar  kind,  in  every  district  of  the  globe,  and   ena- 
ble us  to  establish  something  like  a  rational  theory  or 
system  by  which  to  regulate  our  opinions,   and   direct 
our  researches  in  those  hidden  and  obscure  operations  of 
nature.     Instead  of  which,  however,  their  remarks   on 
this  head  are  few,  vague,  and  unsatisfactory,  and  such  as 
to   afford   but  very  little   assistance   in    determining 
whether  the  currents  which  appear  to  have  overrun 
different  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  effects  produced 
by  them,  were  cotemporaneons  with  those  that  appear 
to  have  overrun  our  own  continent. 

This  being  the  case,  I  shall  proceed  to  notice  some 
of  the  facts  that  have  been  stated,  relative  to  supposed 
currents,  and  their  effects,  with  a  view  to  see  how  far 
they  correspond  with  similar  facts  observable  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  continent  of  America,  (and  which  I 
have  before  mentioned)  and  also,  to  see  how  far  they 
will  warrant  the  inferences  already  advanced,  relative 
to  the  cause  of  those  currents,  and  the  source  or 
sources  from  which  they  flowed. 


154 

The  great  and  cautious  Geologist  Saussure,  ob- 
served in  various  instances,  indications  of  the  destruction 
of  mountains  by  inundations — "that  near  the  Rap- 
tindei,  in  Siberia,  had  evidently  its  sides  torn  off  by  an 
inundation"* 

La  Metherie  supposes  that  the  fresh  water  shells 
and  remains  of  quadrupeds,  about  Paris,  were  deposi- 
ted in  their  present  situation  by  marine  currents. 

Among  the  numerous  indications  of  the  prevalence 
of  currents  which  present  themselves  in  almost  every 
quarter  of  the  world,  no  one  offers  a  stronger  evidence 
or  proof  of  their  existence  and  operations,  than  the  im- 
mense deposites  of  fossil  wood  that  are  found  at  consid- 
erable depths  in  the  earth,  and  in  every  country  upon 
it.  They  not  only  afford  the  strongest  proofs  of  the 
existence  of  currents,  but  they  afford,  at  the  same  time, 
the  most  striking  correspondencies  in  relation  to  the  pe- 
riod or  time  in  which  they  were,  in  general,  deposited, 
and  also  of  the  means  by  which  they  were  accomplished. 

In  America,  as  I  have  before  remarked,  the  depo- 
sites of  fossil  wood,  are,  upon  an  average,  from  40  to  50 
feet  below  the  surface  ;  and  in  many  instances,  below 
low  water  mark,  in  a  bed  of  bluish  clay,  or  mud,  re- 
sembling sea  bottom.  Below  this  point,  it  is  not  pro- 
bable that  trees  could  ever  vegetate  and  arrive  to  ma- 
turity. The  same  or  very  similar  facts  will  be  found 
to  exist  in  Europe,  Africa,  and  probably  Asia. 

It  is  stated  that  <l  trees,  much  resembling  the  laurel 

*  Kirwan's  Essays,  p.  380. 


155 

and  the  olive  were  buried  in  almost  the  whole  of  the 
mouth  of  the  red  sea  ;  and  which,  during  the  ebb,  were 
sometimes  exposed  and  from  the  flowing  in  of  the  tide, 
were  torn  up."*  This  he  observes  is  very  astonishing  ; 
since  even  higher  up  in  the  country  no  trees  are  to  be 
found. 

Eratosthenes  relates  the  same  circumstance  as  ob- 
servable in  the  Persian  sea.f 

De  Boot  remarks,  that  "  near  Bruges,  in  Flanders, 
upon  digging  to  the  depth  of  30  feet,  whole  forests 
wore  found  ;  the  leaves  and  the  trunks  being  so  little 
altered,  that  the  different  species  of  the  trees  which 
had  fallen  yearly,  might  also  be  distinguished. "J 

Buffo n  relates,  on  the  authority  of  Rommazini,  that 
for  four  miles  round  the  town  of  Modena,  on  digging 
to  the  depth  of  twenty  six  feet,  entire  trees,  as  filberts 
with  nuts  upon  them,  and  great  quantities  of  branches 
and  leaves  are  found,  and  at  the  depth  of  forty  nine 
feet  they  came  upon  a  second  stratum  of  fossil  wood 
and  leaves,  extending  to  the  depth  of  sixty  feet  or  more. 
This  last  or  lowest  stratum  is  probably  the  lowermost 
deposite  of  vegetable  matter,  and  corresponds,  not  only 
with  the  preceding  case,  related  by  De  Boot,  but  with 
numerous  others  of  a  similar  kind  that  occur  in  Ame- 
rica. 

Dr.  Plott  remarks,  that  at  Wattington  Park  in  Ox- 
fordshire, at  the  bottom  of  a  pond,  were  found  some 

*  Strabon  Geography,  lib.  16. 

t  Vide  Parkinson's  Or^anick  Remains,  vol.  1,  p.  53. 

\  Vide  Parkinson,  vol.  1,  .p.  55. 


156 

tons  of  oak,  and  a  pit  being  sunk  fifty  or  sixty  feet 
deep,  many  whole  oaks  were  found,  one  of  which  was 
upright,  and  one  also  perpendicular,  but  inverted.* 

In  Dr.  Richardson's  account  of  the  fossil  trees  at 
Youle,  in  Yorkshire,  it  is  said,  that  some  of  them  are 
one  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  their  tops  all  lie  in  one 
direction. 

Similar  remarks  are  made  of  the  subterraneous  trees 
of  Hatfield  Chase,  by  M.  De  la  Pryme  :  "  Infinite 
millions  of  trees  and  roots  are  found  under  the  space  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  acres  of  land,  the 
tops  of  which  trees  commonly  lay  north  east."f 

Subterranean  forests  have  been  described,  by  va- 
rious writers,  as  being  found  in  numerous  instances  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  The  Rev.  W.  JBorlase 
has  given  an  account  of  subterranean  trees  found  on 
the  shores  of  Mounts  bay,  Cornwall. 

Another  is  mentioned  as  extending  under  the  sea  on 
the  coast  of  Lancaster,  between  Liverpool  and  Pres- 
ton, ( England.)} 

Another  at  Sutton  in  Lincolnshire,  (England.  )§ 

M.  Jlutenreuth  has  discovered,  near  Canstadt,  a  sub- 
terranean forest  of  Palms,  many  of  which,  are  two 
feet  in  diameter.  Tf 

Mr.  Rennell  observes,  that  "  when  the  great  reser- 
voir was  dug  in  the  city  of  Calcutta,  whole  trees  were 

*  Dr.  Plott,  page  161., 

f  Vide  Parkinson's  Organick  Remains,  Vol.  I  page  65. 

t  See  Bake  well's  Introduction  to  Geology,  page  260. 

§  Oiganick  Remains,  vol.  I.  page  71         ^  Vol.  3,  p.  429. 


157 

found  at  a  great  depth."*  These,  and  many  more, 
are  mentioned,  but  as  nothing  is  said  of  the  depth  at 
which  they  are  found  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  it 
is  unnecessary  to  describe  them,  with  a  view  to  the 
correspondencies,  which  are  observable  between  them 
and  those  of  America. 

Were  other  proofs,  of  the  existence  and  operations  of 
currents,  wanting,  I  might  quote  whole  pages  on  the 
subject  of  deposites  of  fossil  organick  remains  of  ani- 
mals and  vegetables,  that  are  found  in  almost  every 
country  upon  earth,  and  most  of  which,  it  is  believed,, 
have  been  wafted  by  currents,  and  promiscuously  de- 
posited with  alluvion,  &c.  wherever  they  have  been 
discovered  ;  but  I  shall  dispense  with  any  remarks  on 
that  head,  and  appeal  to  the  opinions  of  those  whose 
observations  and  experience  entitle  them  to  the  highest 
credit. 

Among  others,  Mr.  Parkinson  makes  the  following 
remarks  ;  "  The  fact,  however,  is,  that  although  no 
(fossil)  remains  of  man  are  found,  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  which  is  inhabited  by  man,  displays,  even  at  the 
present  day,  manifest  and  decided  marks  of  the  mecha- 
nical agency  of  violent  currents  of  water*  Nor  is 
there  a  single  stratum,  of  all  those  which  have  been 
mentioned,  which  ,does  not  exhibit  undeniable  proofs 
of  its  having  been  broken,  and  even  dislocated  by  some 
tremendous  power,  which  has  acted  with  considerable 
violence  on  this  planet,  since  the  deposition  of  the  stra- 
ta even  of  the  last  formation."! 

*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  page  514. 

t  Parkinson's  Organick  Remains,  Vol.  Ill,  page  451, 


158 

I  shall,  in  the  next  place,  proceed  to  notice  the  few 
remarks  that  have  been  made,  relative  to  the  course  or 
direction,  in  which,  it  is  supposed,  these  currents  may 
have  flowed,  and  also  of  the  cause. 

In  Cuvier's  Remarks  on  the  Environs  of  Paris,  he 
observes,  "A  marked  character  of  a  great  irruption 
from  the  south  east  is  impressed  on  the  summits,  and 
in  the  direction  of  the  principal  hills." 

Mr.  Carew  observes,  that  "  the  Cornish  tinners  hold 
a  strong  imagination,  that  in  the  withdrawing  of  Noah's 
flood  to  the  sea,  the  same  took  his  course  from  east  to 
west,  violently  breaking  up,  and  forcibly  carrying  with 
it  the  earth,  trees,  and  rocks,  which  lay  any  where 
loosely,  near  the  upper  surface  of  the  ground.  To 
confirm  the  likelihood  of  which  supposed  truths,  they 
do,  many  times,  dig  up  whole  and  huge  timber  trees, 
which  they  conceive,  at  that  deluge,  to  have  been  over- 
turned and  overwhelmed."* 

Mr.  Kirwan  has  taken  a  much  more  enlarged,  and 
extensive  view  of  the  subject,  and  seems  to  be  decided- 
ly of  the  opinion,  that  the  various  changes,  that  appear 
to  have  taken  place  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and 
which  are  believed  to  be  the  result  of  currents,  have 
been  produced  by  the  operation  of  an  "  irruption  of 
waters  from  the  southern  ocean/7  and  further,  that  this 
irruption  of  the  southern  ocean  was  the  cause,  or  con- 
sequence of  the  general  deluge  or  Noatick  flood. 

In  support  of  the  first  part  of  the  proposition,  he  ob- 
serves, "  This  is  pretty  evident,  from  such  animals  as 

*  Carew's  Survey  of  Cornwall,  1602,  page  7. 


159 

the  elephant  and  rhinoceros  being  found,  in  great  mas- 
ses, in  Siberia,  mixed  with  different  marine  sub- 
stances ;  whereas,  no  animals,  or  other  substances, 
belonging  to  the  northern  regions,  have  ever  been 
found  in  southern  climates." 

From  the  circumstance  of  the  immense  deposites,  in 
Siberia,  of  the  fossil  remains  of  elephants,  of  rhinos- 
ceri,  and  other  animals,  peculiar  to  southern  Asia, 
his  conclusions  are  supported  by  a  more  than  common 
degree  of  plausibility  ;  for  certain  it  is,  that  an  almost 
incredible  quantity  of  the  remains  of  those  animals  is 
found  buried  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  the 
high  northern  regions  of  Siberia.  That  they  were  ne- 
ver common  to  that  climate,  is  pretty  certain.  That 
they  never  migrated  there  voluntarily,  and  so  oppor- 
tunely as  to  be  all  destroyed  at  the  same  time,  and  all 
buried  together,  is  equally  as  certain.  That  they  were 
never  carried  there  by  the  winds,  is  still  more  certain. 
But,  that  they  were  carried  there  by  currents,  and  those 
too,  flowing  across  the  continent  of  Asia,  is  not  only 
pla'^ible,  but  conclusive  ;  no  other  medium  or  means 
presenting  itself  by  which  a  work,  of  such  extent  and 
magnitude,  could  have  been  accomplished;  that  of  an 
absolute  miracle  excepted. 

With  respect,  however,  to  the  conclusions  of  Mr. 
ICirwan,  <"  that  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  fountains  of 
the  great  deep,  we  are  to  understand,  an  irruption  of 
waters  from  the  southern  ocean,"  by  which  the  great 
rl»  -,(  \va^  produced,  for  the  purpose  of  purging  the 
earth  of  its  impurities,  aud  by  which,  with  few  excep- 


160 

tions,  almost  every  living  thing  upon  its  surface  was 
not  only  destroyed,  but  annihilated,  it  is  a  very  diffe- 
rent subject.  But  whether  correct  and  true,  or  not,  is 
more  than  any  mortal  living  can  ever  prove.  Never- 
theless, his  views  of  the  subject  were  dignified  and 
sublime  ;  his  researches  were  deep  and  extensive,  and 
so  intent  was  his  mind  upon  this  interesting  topick, 
that  he  suffered  it  to  be  swept  away  by  the  resistless 
current,  occasioned  by  the  irruption  of  waters  from  the 
southern  ocean,  to  attend  to  the  frightful  scene  of  bury- 
ing alive,  by  thousands,  elephants  and  rhinoceri, 
without  thinking  of  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

What,  let  us  ask,  must  or  would  have  been  the  con- 
sequence of  the  waters  of  the  southern  ocean,  leaving 
it,  for  the  purpose  of  inundating  or  deluging  every  foot 
of  earth  upon  the  globe  ?  It  appears  to  me  to  need  no 
astronomical  calculations  to  determine,  that  its  conse- 
quences must  have  been  worse,  than  that  of  the  deluge. 

Had  Mr.  Kirwan  been  assisted  by  a  knowledge  of 
one-tenth  part  of  the  existing  facts,  that  have  a  most 
intimate  bearing  on,  and  relation  to  the  subject  of  cur- 
rents that  are  supposed  to  have  been  connected  with 
the  universal  deluge ;  had  he  bestowed  a  more  minute 
and  critical  examination  on  these  facts,  and  extended 
his  views  so  far  as  to  have  embraced  every  continent 
upon  the  globe,  in  order  to  determine  the  relation  and 
extent  of  their  operations ;  he  might,  with  the  half  of 
his  intelligence  and  sagacity,  have  discovered  such  a 
series  of  analogies  and  correspondencies,  presenting 


161 

themselves  at  every  avenue,  as  would  have  enabled 
him  to  establish  a  theory,  that  should  harmonize  in  all 
its  parts,  and  carry  with  it  in  the  highest  attainable 
degree,  the  semblance  of  truth,  if  not  the  seal  itself. 

As  it  is,  his  theory  of  the  deluge,  though  plausible 
and  supported  by  facts,  in  themselves  highly  interest- 
ing, is  limited,  imperfect,  and  destitute  of  that  support 
which  is  necessary  to  enable  us  to  clear  up  the  exist- 
ing difficulties  which  present  themselves,  and  in  a 
*hape  so  formidable  as  to  bid  defiance  to  every  attempt 
to  reconcile  them  to  his  theory,  consistently  with  the 
principles  of  truth  and  philosophy. 

For  example. — If  the  deluge,  which  was  doubtless 
universal,  was  occasioned  by  an  irruption  of  water 
from  the  Southern  ocean,  and  which,  in  its  course, 
swept  from  all  the  surface  of  southern  Asia,  the  ani- 
mal exuvia,  and  deposited  them  on  the  borders  of  the 
Arctick  sea,  how  does  it  happen  that  nothing  of  the 
kind  has  hitherto  been  discovered  in  the  same,  or  simi- 
lar latitudes  on  the  continent  of  North  America  ? 

On  the  contrary,  the  organick  remains  of  animals 
appear  to  have  been  carried  in  a  direction,  from  north 
to  south  across  the  continent  of  America,  and  deposit- 
ed, as  in  Siberia,  in  the  alluvion  on  its  most  southern 
borders,* 


*  It  is  not  pretended,  by  any  means,  that  all  the  animal  remains 
are  deposited  in  the  alluvial  region;  it  is  well  known  that  they  are 
occasionally  found  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  as  high  as  lat. 
11°,  perhaps  higher,  and  particularly  the  remains  of  the  mammoth. 


This  conclusion  is  founded  on  the  incontrovertible 
fact,  that  the  remains  of  the  elephant  and  mammoth 
are  found  deposited  in  the  great  alluvial  district  on  our 
Atlantick  coast,  which  never  could  have  been  caused 
by  a  current,  flowing  from  the  Southern  ocean ;  because 
in  its  course,  following  the  direction  of  the  Atlantick, 
no  district  or  country  presents  itself,  from  which 
these  animals  could  have  been  transported  ;  besides, 
if  from  that  source,  they  would  have  been  transport- 
ed still  further  over  the  continent,  perhaps  as  far 
north  as  those  in  Siberia. 

Not  only  are  the  remains  of  these  animals  found  by 
mere  accident,  in  our  alluvial  district,  and  which  in  all 
probability  are  nearly  as  abundant  as  the  remains  of 
the  elephant  and  rhinoceros  in  Siberia ;  but  the  re- 
mains of  the  mammoth,  which  is  an  animal,  beyond  the 
shadow  of  doubt,  peculiar  to  the  high  northern  re- 
gions, are  found  beyond  the  great  bay  or  gulf  of 
Mexico,  buried  in  alluvion  on  the  continent  of  South 
America. 

This  difficulty  alone,  seems  to  present  an  insupera- 
ble obstacle  to  the  adoption  of  the  theory  of  Mr. 
Kirwan  ;  that  the  deluge  was  occasioned  by  an  irrup- 
tion only  from  the  Southern  Ocean. 

That  a  current  may  have  flown  from  the  Southern 
Ocean  across  the  continent  of  Asia,  is  more  than  pro- 
bable ;  the  deposites  of  organick  remains  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  Asia  and  Siberia,  are  demonstrative  of 
such  an  event.  That  it  may  have  been  a  consequence 
of  the  elevation  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  for  the  pur- 


163 

pose  of  inundating  the  entire  globe,  I  am  willing  tu 
admit ;  not  only  so,  but  I  shall  contend,  that  at  the 
same  time,  and  most  probably  from  the  same  cause,  a 
corresponding  current  flowed  from  the  north  pole,  but 
with  much  greater  rapidity,  for  the  same  end  or  in- 
tentions, and  producing  similar  or  corresponding 
effects. 

It  becomes  necessary,  in  the  next  place,  to  explain 
the  apparent  inconsistency,  seemingly  attending  the 
prevalence  of  two  powerful  currents  flowing  at  the 
same  time,  in  direct  opposition  to  each  other,  in  order 
to  obviate  any  doubts  that  may  be  entertained  as  to  the 
real  existence  of  two  such  currents,  and  their  simulta- 
neous operations. 

It  will  be  recollected,  that  in  the  first  part  of  these 
essays,  I  endeavoured  to  prove,  by  a  variety  of  in- 
teresting facts  that  exist  on  the  continent  of  North 
America,  that  a  powerful  current  had  flowed,  at  some 
remote  period  of  time,  over  its  whole  surface  from 
north  east  to  south  west,  or  from  north  to  south — that 
one  of  the  many  results  of  this  current,  was  the  for- 
mation of  the  great  alluvial  district,  skirting  our  At- 
lantick  coast.  And  also,  that  the  focus  or  probable 
source  of  this  current,  was  the  Arctick  sea  or  north 
pole.  And  further,  in  order  to  account  for  the  cause 
of  the  elevation  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  the 
consequent  currents  that  flowed  over  the  continent,  I 
assumed  the  grounds  on  which  St.  Pierre  explained 
the  cause  of  of  the  deluge,  viz.  to  the  melting  of  the 
polar  ices — not  however  with  the  view  of  advocating. 


164 

the  theory  of  St.  Pierre,  but  to  explain  the  probable 
results  that  must  inevitably  have  grown  out  of  this 
new  order  of  things.  Neither  did  I  assume  it,  under 
the  smallest  degree  of  conviction,  that  the  ices  at  the 
two  poles,  if  they  were  to  be  suddenly  and  complete- 
ly dissolved,  would  be  sufficient,  in  addition  to  the 
oceans,  to  inundate  or  deluge  the  earth  completely ;  far 
from  it.  But  if  the  waters  of  the  deluge  did  flow  from 
these  sources,  it  is  more  than  j)rob  able  that  the  polar  ices 
were  dissolved  and  rendered  tributary  to  this  stupen- 
dous object;  and  that  the  same  Almighty  Power 
which  governs  the  universe,  could  easily  have  increas- 
ed the  quantity  of  water  at  these  two  focusses  to  a 
degree  sufficient  to  deluge  the  world. 

That  the  deluge  was  decreed  by  the  Almighty  to 
accomplish  the  awful  denunciations  which  he  had  pro- 
nounced against  an  impious  race  of  men,  there  can 
remain  no  doubt.  That  it  did  take  place  with  all  its 
concomitant  horrours  is  equally  as  certain. 

That  to  have  elevated  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
above  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains  in  the  world, 
must  have  been  the  result,  only  of  a  miracle,  will  not  be 
denied.  That  to  have  accomplished  this  work  by  the 
incessant  fall  of  torrents  of  rain,  is  by  no  means  pro- 
bable, and  for  reasons  which  1  have  before  advanced, 
in  part,  but  which  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  repeat :  viz. 
— The  fall  of  rains  would  not,  probably,  have  pro- 
duced the  full  and  complete  effect  which  was  intended  $ 
for  as  the  waters  of  the  ocean  rose  in  height,  the  cur- 
rents from  the  surface  of  the  land,  and  even  from  the 
mountains'  height,  would  at  last  have  been  checked, 


165 

as  the  tides  of  the  ocean  check  the  currents  of  rivers. 
Under  such  circumstances,  thousands  of  districts 
would  have  retained  their  forest  trees  entire ;  for  rains, 
in  continued  and  incessant  torrents  will  never  beat 
down  forests,  unless  assisted  by  currents ;  whereas, 
it  is  said  in  the  appalling  decree  that  «  every  living 
substance  that  I  have  made,  will  I  destroy  from  off  the 
face  of  the  earth."  Hence,  we  are  justified  in  the 
conclusion,  that  currents  of  inconceivable  force  and 
rapidity  were  not  only  consequences,  but  the  most 
efficient  agents  in  the  fulfilment  of  this  decree. 

That  they  flowed  from  the  two  poles  of  the  earth 
is,  after  viewing  all  the  exising  facts,  the  most  rational 
inference  that  can  be  drawn ;  and  in  fact,  one  that 
scarcely  admits  of  any  other  conclusion. 

Uuder  these  impressions,  I  shall  proceed  to  obviate 
the  apparent  inconsistencies  before  mentioned,  and  to 
examine,  still  further,  the  probable  consequences  of 
these  two  powerful  and  opposite  currents. 

I  have  observed,  that  from  the  north  pole,  there  are 
but  two  outlets ;  the  one  into  the  Pacific  ocean 
through  the  comparatively,  narrow  channel  of  Bheer- 
ing's  straits ;  the  other,  through  an  immense  channel, 
into  the  Atlantic  ocean,  between  the  coasts  at  Green- 
land and  North  Cape  on  the  northern  coast  of  Lap- 
land. And  that  these  two  outlets  are  situated  almost 
diametrically  opposite  to  each  other,  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  globe. 

Under  these  circumstances,  whether  the  waters  that 
flowed  from  the  north  pole,  were  the  results  of  the 


166 

melting  of  the  ices,  or  some  other  cause,  it  is  immate- 
rial ;  by  far  the  greatest  quantity  of  water  flowed 
into  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  continued  so  to  do,  with 
increasing  rapidity,  until  the  continent  was  partly  over- 
flowed by  its  waters,  and  those  of  the  Arctick  sea,  no 
longer  restricted  by  their  natural  boundaries,  overrun 
the  whole  continent  from  north  to  south. 

At  the  same  time,  and  from  the  same  cause,  and 
most  probably  too,  for  the  same  purpose,  a  correspond- 
ing current  was  flowing  from  the  south  towards  the 
north  pole  ;  but  being  unrestricted  in  its  course  and 
sphere  of  action,  and  at  liberty  to  flow  in  any  direc- 
tion, its  force  was  weakened,  and  being  opposed  by  the 
more  powerful  current  of  the  Atlantic,  which  was  lim- 
ited between  three  great  continents,  it  was  divided ; 
a  part  flowing  into  the  Pacific,  and  the  other  into  the 
Indian  Ocean.  As  the  water  increased  in  quantity, 
the  currents  were  also  increased  in  rapidity,  still,  having 
no  influence  on  the  unequal  current  of  the  Atlantic,  it  con- 
tinued to  urge  its  force  into  the  Pacific,  and  Indian 
Oceans,  Thus,  while  the  current  from  the  North  Pole, 
through  the  Atlantic  ocean,  was  overrunning  all  the 
continent  of  America,  east  of  the  Snowy  or  Kocky  Moun- 
tains, and  a  part  of  Europe,  the  currents  from  the 
South  Pole  were  overrunning  all  Asia  and  a  part  of 
America. 

It  now  remains  to  describe  the  operations  of  these 
opposite  currents,  and  to  point  out  their  visible  effects. 
But  how  vain,  and  how  feeble  the  efforts,  even  of  the 
utmost  stretch  of  human  imagination,  in  attempting  to 


167 

delineate,  or  even  "  trace  the  circumstances  of  the  most 
horrible  catastrophe  to  which  the  human,  and  all  ani- 
mal species,  and  even  the  terraqueous  globe  itself,  had, 
at  any  period  since  its  origin  been  exposed."* 

From  the  comparatively  few  facts  that  I  have  been 
able  to  obtain  from  reading  and  from  observation,  I 
have  endeavoured  to  prove,  that  a  current  had  flowed 
from  the  north  or  north  east,  to  the  south  or  south  west, 
across  the  continent  of  America,  embracing  in  its  course, 
nearly  its  whole  breadth.  1  have  there  endeavoured  to 
make  it  appear,  that  almost  all  the  high  northern  regions 
of  North- America  display  but  little  else,  than  a  super- 
ficies of  bare  rocks,  from  which,  the  soil  had  been  ta- 
ken by  this  overwhelming  current,  and  carried  across 
the  continent,  and  deposited  on  the  borders  of  the  At- 
lantic ocean — That  by  it,  whole  forests,  together  with, 
probably,  all  the  animals  that  then  inhabited  the  land 
were  swept  away,  and  deposited  in  the  alluvion  which 
had  accumulated  in  low  depressed  places; — but 
more  particularly,  in  the  great  alluvial  district  at  the 
south  eastern  extremity  of  our  continent — I  have  en- 
deavoured to  prove  that  those  districts  of  fossil 
wood  and  organick  remains  of  animals,  of  different 
kinds,  that  are  found  at  and  below  low  water  mark,  are 
the  result  of  the  operations  of  this  great  current  in 
its  earliest  stage,  and  before  it  had  risen  to  the  height 
of  our  ordinary  mountains — That  the  stones  which  had 
been  for  ages  accumulating  on  the  bottoms  of  our  ri- 
vers, were  driven  from  their  beds  and  wafted  over  the 

*  Se«  Kirwan's  Essays,  p.  54, 


168 

country,  or  deposited  in  tlieir  western  and  southern 
banks — That  facts  of  this  kind  are  common  in  almost 
every  part  of  America — But  throughout  the  whole  of 
this  immense  space,  not  an  instance  occurs,  that  1  can 
hear  of,  that  will  favour,  in  the  least  possible  degree,  an 
opinion  that  a  current  had  flowed  in  a  contrary  direc- 
tion, (the  present  rivers  excepted,)  over  any  part  or 
portion  of  our  hemisphere.  With  Asia,  however,  it  is 
not  only  different  but  directly  the  reverse ;  the  strong- 
est evidence  of  which,  is  that,  which  Mr.  Kirwan  has 
adduced  in  favour  of  his  theory,  (viz.)  the  immense  de- 
posites  of  elephants  and  rhinoceri,  mixed  with  marine 
substances,  in  Siberia — These  animals,  it  is  well  known, 
are,  almost  exclusively,  inhabitants  of  the  southern  parts 
of  Asia,  from  lat.  10°  to  30  or  35°  north ;  that  from 
their  enormous  size  and  clumsy  form,  they  are  render- 
ed extremely  unwieldly,  and,  when  exposed  to  the  ope- 
rations of  an  irresistible  current,  must  be  among  the 
first  that  fall  victims  to  its  fury — Hence,  the  conclusion, 
that  a  current,  flowing  from  the  south  pole,  overrun  the 
continent  of  Asia,  and  swept  in  its  course  these  animals 
and  buried  them  with  the  alluvion,  in  the  high  northern 
regions  of  Siberia. 

Numerous  other  circumstances,  doubtless,  exist  in 
every  country  comprised  within  the  limits  of  this  great 
continent,  which  will  apply  with  equal  force  as  proofs 
of  the  existence  and  operations  of  a  current  from  the 
southern  ocean  or  south  pole. 

But  as  yet,  few  travellers  have  visited  these  coun- 
tries with  a  view  to  the  promotion  of  science — and 


169 

those  who  have,  seem  to  have  discovered  but  very  lit- 
tle interest  in  this  important  subject,  as  scarcely  any 
mention  is  made  of  facts  that  are  connected  with  it. 

In  Europe  however,  numerous  facts  have  been  ob- 
served by  the  votaries  of  science,  particularly  by  geolo- 
gists, and  mineralogists — and  also  some  in  Africa,  and 
which  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  they  are,  not  only, 
the  result  of  currents  of  water,  but  of  currents  flowing 
from  the  southern  ocean,  at  the  same  time  as  those 
which  overrun  all  Asia. 

These  facts  and  results,  I  would  explain  on  the  fol- 
lowing principles. 

The  currents  from  the  south  pole,  as  I  have  remark- 
ed, were  principally  thrown  into  the  Indian,  and  Pa- 
cific Ocean ;  that  of  the  latter,  in  consequence  of  the 
continent  of  America  stretching  away  to  the  N.  West, 
was  naturally  thrown  in  a  north  westerly  direction 
across  the  continent  of  Asia.  The  former  being  thrown 
into  the  Indian  ocean  and  being  influenced  in  its  course 
by  that  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  together  with  New-Hol- 
land and  the  Islands  in  the  China  Sea,  was  likewise 
urged  in  a  north  westerly  direction,  and  with  all  its 
force  thrown  into  the  bay  of  Bengal,  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Red  Sea — The  countries  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  these  last  three  seas,  are  probably  among  those  that 
suffered  most  materially  by  these  currents,  in  the  early 
stage  of  the  inundation  ;  for  as  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
were  elevated,  the  numerous  rivers  which  run  an  east- 
erly course,  and  are  discharged  into  the  bay  of  Ben- 
gal, and  particularly  the  Ganges,  were  obstructed  in 

id 


their  courses,  and  thrown  back  to  inundate  the  whole 
country  between  it  and  the  Arabian  Sea. — While 
the  same  operations  were  going  on  throughout 
all  Arabia  and  Persia,  the  currents  were  driven  with 
great  force  through  the  Red  Sea  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean without  obstruction ;  for  it  is  more  than  proba- 
ble that  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  did  not  exist  at  that  time. 

Among  the  proofs  to  be  adduced,  in  support  of  the 
currents  from  the  Southern  Ocean  or  South  Pole,  are 
the  following. — 

New  Zealand,  in  a  high  southern  latitude,  presents 
an  aspect  similar  to  the  high  northern  regions  of  Ame- 
rica, being  almost  destitute  of  soil,  as  would  appear  from 
the  description  given  by  Dr.  Hawksworth — "  A  pros- 
pect more  rude,  craggy  and  desolate  than  this  country 
affords  from  the  sea,  cannot  possibly  be  conceived;  for 
as  far  inland  as  the  eye  can  reach,  nothing  appears  but 
the  summits  of  rocks  which  stand  so  near  together,  that 
instead  of  valleys,  there  are  only  fissures  between 
them."* 

The  south  side  of  the  Island  of  J  ava,  which  was  ex- 
posed to  the  operation  of  the  currents,  is  high,  broken, 
and  rugged — While  the  north  side  is  low  and  of  an  al- 
luvious  formation,  and  extending  thirty  miles  or  more 
into  the  country,  where  it  begins  to  rise  into  hillsf. 

The  island  of  Tongotaboo  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  ri- 
ses suddenly  from  the  sea,  on  the  south  east  coast; 

*  See  Cook's  Voyage  round  the  World, 
t  Cook's  Voyages. 


171 

while  the  north  west  side  is  alluvions,  affording  plains 
and  meadows — Terre  del  Fuego,  likewise,  presents 
to  view,  an  aspect  which  leads  to  the  conclusion,  that  it 
has  suffered  by  an  agent,  more  general,  if  not  more  vi- 
olent in  its  operations,  than  the  volcano  that  exists  in 
one  of  its  highest  mountains — Many  other  places  dis- 
cover the  most  decided  and  unequivocal  marks  of  the 
operations  of  dreadful  currents  from  the  southern  ocean, 
and  which,  as  in  all  cases  of  the  kind,  occasioned  the 
most  sensible  effects  in  parts  most  exposed  to  its  opera- 
tions. 

The  borders  of  the  Red  Sea  seems,  likewise,  to  afford 
proofs  of  the  operation  of  these  currents. 

As  the  waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean  were  probably  ur- 
ged into  this  sea  with  inconceivable  force  and  rapidity, 
the  shelly  tribes  that  had  long  held  the  undisputed  pre- 
rogative of  inhabiting  its  oozy  bottom,  were  torn  up  and 
carried  in  a  north  westerly  direction  into  the  interior 
of  Egypt — Hence  it  is,  that  great  quantities  of  shells 
of  various  species  are  distributed  over  the  country, 
and  mixed  with  the  soils  and  sands  of  Egypt."* 

"  Betwixt  Suez  and  Cairo,  likewise, "  says  Dr. 
Shaw,  "  and  all  over  the  mountains  of  Lybia,  every 
little  rising  ground,  and  hillock  that  is  not  covered 
with  sand,  discovers  great  quantities  of  the  Echini,  as 
well  as  of  the  bivalve  and  turbinated  shells,  most  of 

*  These  are  doubtless  the  same  as  alluded  to  by  Herodotus  in 
book  2,  chap.  12. 


172 

which  exactly  correspond   with  their  respective  fa- 
milies still  preserved  in  the  Red  Sea."* 

Similar  facts  and  appearances  occur  on  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  districts  adjacent, 
likewise  exposed  to  the  force  and  operations  of  the 
same  current,  some  of  which  have  recently  been  taken 
notice  of  by  Mr.  Allen  in  his  geological  sketch  of  the 
environs  of  Nice. 

"  The  fissures  1  now  talk  of,  "  he  says,  "  seem  to 
have  been  formed  after  the  consolidation  of  the  breccia, 
already  described,  and  are  literally  filled,  in  some 
places,  with  sea  shells,  of  a  species  all  now  alive  in  the 
Mediterranean".  (Page  i^J 

In  speaking  of  the  shells  in  the  clay,  he  says,  "  It  is 
in  this  particular  kind  of  clay  that  a  considerable  va- 
riety of  shells  are  found,  of  kinds  also  which  are  all 
to  be  met  with  alive  in  the  Mediterranean."  (Page  iy.J 
And  of  the  shells  found  in  the  sand  near  the  village  of 
Trinity  he  further  remarks,  "  If  they  can  be  got  out 
entire,  they  afterwards  retain  a  slight  degree  of  hard- 
ness ;  but  even  in  their  pulverulent  state,  they  ex- 
hibit their  varieties  distinctly,  and  all  I  am  told,  are 
kinds  now  living  in  the  Mediterranean.  Indeed  I 
have  seen  most  if  not  all  of  them,  in  a  recent  state." 
(Page  IQ.J 

Whence  came  these  shells,  but  from  the  bottom  of 
the  Mediterranean,  where  their  species  are  now  living? 
And  to  what  cause  shall  we  attribute  their  removal,  but 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  p.  383. 


173 

to  the  operations  of  a  current  setting  in  that  direction, 
and  by  \vhich  they  were  torn  up  from  the  bottom  and 
thrown  upon  the  surface  of  that  kind  of  Valley,  at  the 
foot  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Alps  ?  No  appearances 
of  the  kind  have  ever,  I  believe,  been  taken  notice  of 
on  the  opposite  shores  of  that  sea ;  neither  have  the 
shells,  mentioned  by  Dr.  Shaw,  as  being  spread 
over  Egypt,  the  families  of  which  are  still  living  in  the 
Red  Sea,  ever  been  observed  on  the  eastern  borders  of 
that  sea,  or  the  Arabian  deserts.  It  is  true  Mr.  Irwin 
mentions,  that  quantities  of  shells,  are  found  in  the  de- 
sert near  Mocha,  but  he  likewise  says,  that  they  are 
the  productions  of  the  Ocean.* 

That  the  shells  in  both  these  instances  were  removed 
by  the  force  of  currents  from  the  south,  lhave  no  doubt, 
and  this  opinion  is  supported  by  similar  facts,  that  oc- 
cur in  other  parts  both  of  Europe  and  Asia,  where  not 
only  like  cases  occur,  but  they  seem  decidedly,  to  have 
been  produced  by  the  same  cause,  and  most  probably, 
at  the  same  time. 

In  the  immense  deserts,  at  the  northern  extremity, 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  numerous  instances  of  this  kind  are 
to  be  seen,  and  of  which  Pallas  has  made  particular 
mention  in  his  travels  in  Russia. 

<»  We  have"  he  observes,  "  the  following  incontes- 
tible  proofs,  that  the  Yaikian  desert,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  Kalmuks,  and  the  Wolga,  have  been  formerly  cov- 
ered by  the  waters  of  the  Caspian  Sea  :  first,  the  innu- 

Mrwin's  Voyages,  vol.  1  p.  18. 


174 

merable  shells  that  are  scattered  in  every  direction  of 
these  deserts,  exactly  resemble  those  of  the  Caspian  sea, 
and  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  rivers." — Pallas'  Tra- 
vels, vol.  I.  page  78. 

In  speaking  of  the  fossil  shells  on  the  banks  of  the 
Wolga,  he  says,  "  Several  bivalve  shells  of  the  C  as- 
pian  sea  are  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  high  banks 
of  this  river." — Vol.  L  page  113. 

Near  Yenatsevka,  «  A  quantity  of  decayed  shells 
are  every  where  found  intermixed  with  this  sand,  and 
some  Caspian  muscles  in  a  calcined  state/"' — Vol.  I. 
page  118. 

In  his  description  of  the  rolled  pebbles  and  fossil 
shells  at  Arsagar,  he  observes,  "  This  extensive  base, 
and  mountain  itself,  as  far  as  the  highest  eastern  knoll, 
are  covered  writh  small,  black  and  white  lenticular 
pebbles,  which  must  have  assumed  .that  form  under, 
water.  On  the  summit  of  the  ridge,  I  found  the  bi- 
valve shells  of  the  Caspian  sea,  in  a  good  state  of  pre- 
servation, a  proof  that  the  waters  of  this  sea  formerly 
covered  the  other  Selenitick  rocks,  as  well  as  this  emi- 
nence, that  rises  from  twelve  to  thirteen  fathoms  above 
its  base." — Vol.  L  page  14*. 

On  the  fossil  shells  near  lake  Byeloi  Ilmen,  he  re- 
marks, "  On  this  border  of  sand  banks  we  observed 
many  shells  of  the  Caspian  sea,  though  we  had  not  met 
with  any  in  the  low  country,  either  because  they  were 
covered  over  with  mire,  or  entirely  decomposed,  or,  per- 
haps, they  had  been  drifted  more  towards  the  banks  of 
the  ancient  sea." — Vol.  L  page  307. 


175 


Mr.  Kirwan,  in  speaking  of  the  shells  in  the  deserts 
of  Naryn  and  others  more  southern,  between  the  Wol- 
ga  and  the  Jaik  or  Ural,  says,  "  The  shells  which 
abound  in  this  extensive  flat,  exactly  resemble  those  of 
the  Caspian,  and  are  different  from  those  of  the  adja- 
cent rivers."* 

To  what  shall  we  look  for  the  cause  of  these  exten- 
sive deposites  of  fossil  shells,  that  are  peculiar  to  the 
Caspian  sea,  whilst  nothing  of  the  kind  has  ever  been 
observed,  that  I  can  find,  either  on  the  west,  the  south, 
or  the  east  side  of  it?  If  that  sea  has  receded,  as  is 
pretended,  or  fallen  below  its  ancient  level,  we  might 
reasonably  expect  to  find  fossil  shells,  once  peculiar  to 
it,  on  all  its  borders,  except  where  rocks  exist ;  but 
this  is  not  the  case.  Whilst  they  abound  in  the  banks, 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Wolga,  no  mention 
is  made  of  any  thing  of  the  kind  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Oxus,  or  in  its  ancient  course ;  neither  do  I  find  any 
thing  of  the  kind,  as  having  been  observed  in  the  great 
desert  between  the  Caspian  sea,  and  the  sea  of  Aral. 

That  they  were  carried  there  by  currents  from  the 
south,  and  deposited,  is  rendered  still  more  probable, 
from  the  circumstance  that  in  the  same  districts,  the  fos- 
sil remains  of  the  elephant,  &c.  are  found  buried  in  the 
alluvion,!  which  is  many  degrees  further  to  the  north, 
than  the  countries  to  which  they  naturally  belong,  or 
which  they  have  ever  been  known  to  frequent. 

*  Kirwan's  Essays,  page  91. 

t  See  Pallas's  Travels,  volume  I,  page  108  and  115. 


176 

As*  the  waters  of  the  ocean  increased  in  height,  and 
the  currents  in  rapidity,  the  countries  adjacent  to  the 
Mediterranean  were  inundated,  and  the  waters  pro- 
pelled across  the  continent  between  the  Alps,  Pyren- 
nees,  and  other  mountains,  whilst  the  animal  and  vege- 
table remains  of  Hindostan,  Arabia,  and  Africa,  were 
borne  across  the  country,  and  deposited  in  many 
places  on  the  continent  of  Europe ;  such  as  the  ele- 

*  As  respects  the  geological  appearances  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Caspian  sea,  and  the  sea  of  Aral,  it  is  difficult,  from  the  few  facts 
that  are  given  us  on  this  subject,  to  determine,  with  certainty,  what 
were  the  effects  of  that  great  revolution  upon  it  and  the  surround- 
ing country.  Yet,  although  the  great  extent  of  country,  the  Steppes, 
to  the  northward  and  westward  of  the  Caspian  sea,  does  not  alto- 
gether favour  the  opinion,  that  the  same  currents  have  been  instru- 
mental in  producing  the  changes,  which  we  are  led  to  suppose  it  has 
undergone ;  the  country  to  the  south  east  to  a  great  distance  affords 
many  reasons  to  believe,  that  it  has  experienced  material  changes 
from  the  same  cause ;  and  that  the  great  desert  of  Khilva  or  Kiva, 
(once  perhaps  a  part  of  the  Caspian  Sea,)  is  the  result  of  its  opera- 
tions. If  we  view  the  great  ridge  of  Imaus  on  the  east,  extending 
to  a  great  distance  from  south  east  to  north  west,  and  its  subordi- 
nate ridges  extending  westerly  a  considerable  distance  ;  and  then 
view  the  great  range  of  Sariphi  Mountains,  commencing  near  the  la- 
titude 32°  50',  and  running  a  similar  course  until  meeting  the  Cas- 
pian sea,  then  turning  north  along  its  coast  to  latitude  42°  or  more, 
we  shall  see  an  immense  valley,  through  which  these  currents  must 
of  necessity  have  flowed,  and  in  which  lies  the  great  desert  of  Khie- 
va,  extending  from  latitude  37°  20'  to  beyond  42°.  This  desert 
extends  in  breadth  from  the  Caspian  sea  to  the  river  Sihon,  or  Oxus. 
This  river  takes  its  rise  in  the  Ghergistan  Kuttore  mountains, 
which  run  in  a  circular  range  from  mount  Seriphi  on  the  west, 
to  mount  Imaus  on  the  east. 


177 

phant  and  rhinoceros,  the  bamboo  and  palm  from  Hiu- 
dostan  ;  the  seal§,  &c.  from  Africa. 

These  are  mentioned  as  having  been  found  in  vari- 
ous places  in  France,  Italy,  and  other  districts  on  the 
continent. 

The  remains  of  the  Hippopotamus,  peculiar  to  the 
island  of  Sumatra,  and  Africa  have  been  found  in 
France. 

Some  of  the  lower  hills  of  the  Appennines  contain 
fossil  bones  of  elephants,  rhinoceri,  whales,  and  dol- 
phins.* 

Jussieu  discovered  in  a  stone,  which  he  found  in  the 
earth  near  the  coal,  at  St.  Chaumont  en  Lionnois,  an 
impression  which  bore  the  exact  resemblance  to  the 
fruit  and  seeds  of  the  Abor-tristes  of  travellers.  This 
tree,  it  appears,  grows  only  in  the  Canaries,  and  at 
Malabar,  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel.f 

The  remains  of  the  hyena,  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  are  found  associated  with  those  of  the  elephant, 
in  the  caverns  of  Gaylenreuth. 

Remains  of  this  same  animal  (the  hyena)  are  found 
too,  associated  with  those  of  bears,  which,  at  present, 
exist  only  in  the  north. 

"  At  what  time,"  says  M.  Cuvier,  ft  was  it,  that 
the  elephants,  and  hyenas  of  the  Cape,  of  the  size  of 
our  bears,  lived  in  our  climate,  and  were  shaded  by  fo- 
rests of  palms,  and  in  which  they  took  shelter  in  ca- 
verns, along  with  bears  as  large  as  our  horsfts.)jf 

*  Phillips's  Geology,  page  87  and  97. 
f  Parkinson's  Organick  Remains. 
|  Cuvier's  Theory  of  the  Earth. 


178 

In  the  great  coal  district  near  Cologn,  not  only  the 
trunks  of  trees,  deprived  of  their  branches,  are  found, 
but  "  nuts  which  are  indigenous  to  Hindostan  and 
China,  and  a  fragment  of  a  resinous  guin  are  also  found 
in  it."* 

To  the  operations  of  these  currents  we  may  attribute 
the  cause  of  the  excavation  of  the  rocks  at  Gibraltar, 
as  mentioned  by  Major  Imrie,  "  On  the  surface  of  the 
rock,"  he  observes,  "are  seen  pot-like  holes,  hollowed 
out  by  the  attrition  of  gravel  or  pebbles,  set  in  motion 
by  the  rapidity  of  rivers,  or  currents  in  the  sea,  some 
of  the  pebbles  now  remaining  in  them." 

From  this  phenomenon  Mr.  Imrie  concludes,  that 
f(  however  high  the  surface  of  this  rock  may  now  be  ele- 
vated above  the  level  of  the  sea,  it  has  once  been  the 
bed  of  agitated  watersS'-\ 

Admitting  these  facts  to  be  true,  do  we  hazard  too 
much  in  saying,  that,  probably,  at  the  same  epoch,  in 
which  these  holes  were  formed,  the  great  and  impor- 
tant event  took  place,  which  the  ancients  have  so  often 
mentioned,  and  of  which  so  much  has  been  said,  (viz.) 
the  disjunction  of  Europe  and  Africa  by  "the  labours 
of  Hercules"  so  called  :f  and  by  which  a  communica- 
tion was  opened  between  the  Mediterranean  sea  and 
Atlantic  Ocean,  at  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  ? 

Whether  this  be  true  or  not,  it  is  worthy  of  remark, 
with  respect  to  the  excavations,  or  pot-like  holes  in 

*  BakeweH's  Introduction  to  Geology,  page  197. 
t  Parkinson's  Organick  Remains,  vol.  Ill,  page  332 
\  See  Natural  History  of  Pliny,  book  3. 


179 

the  rocks  of  Gibraltar1,  that  similar  cases  occur  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world,  and,  I  believe,  at  nearly  the 
same  elevation  above  the  present  level  of  the  ocean. 

Mr.  Mackenzie,  in  speaking  of  the  portage  of  the 
Chaudiere  des  Francois,  says,  "  It  must  have  acquired 
the  name  of  Kettle,  from  the  great  number  of  holes  in 
the  solid  rock  of  a  cylindrical  form  not  unlike  that  cu- 
linary utensil." 

"  At  the  bottom  of  them  are  generally  found  a  num- 
ber of  stones  and  pebbles.'' 

These  holes  are  represented,  as  being  upwards  of 
ten  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  water  at  its 
greatest  height.  And  further  "They  are  indeed  to  be 
seen  along  every  great  river  throughout  this  wide  ex- 
tended country."* 

M.  Henry,  after  describing  the  carrying  place  of  La 
Chaudiere  Francois,  and  the  excavations  in  the  rocks, 
observes,  "  but  the  phenomenon  is  not  peculiar  to  this 
spot,  the  same  being  observable  at  almost  every  carry- 
ing place,  in  the  Otaouais." 

"  Every  where  the  waters  appear  to  have  subsided 
from  its  ancient  level. "f 

On  the  Mohawk  river,  where  it  is  supposed  a  dread- 
ful disruption  of  the  rocks  has  taken  place,  at  some 
unknown  period  of  time,  these  cylindrical  excavations 
in  the  rocks,  are  numerous  and  deep,J  and  afford  the 

*  Mackenzie's  Travels,  p.  37. 

t  Henry's  Travels,  p.  31. 

\  See  Clinton's  Introductory  Discourses,  p,  52. 


180 

most  unequivocal  proofs  of  the  violent  agitations  of 
currents  of  water,  at  an  elevation,  much  above  the  pre- 
sent bed  of  the  river,  and  corresponding  in  height  too, 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  very  nearly  with  those  in 
the  rocks  of  Gibraltar. 

Facts  so  palpable,  and  at  the  same  time  so  numerous 
and  interesting  in  their  kinds,  are  calculated  to  impress 
a  belief  in  the  existence  and  operations  of  currents,  in 
every  quarter  of  the  globe ;  and  that  too,  far  above 
the  present  level  of  the  sea. 

So  decided  are  many  in  this  opinion,  that  they  have 
not  hesitated,  to  attribute  the  cause  of  these  interesting 
phenomena,  to  the  operations  of  currents,  without  know- 
ing or  endeavouring  to  explain,  by  what  means  they 
were  put  in  motion,  or  whence  they  probably  originated, 

Faujas  considers  the  fossil  remains,  found  at  the 
quarries  of  Montabussard,  as  having  been  brought 
from  India,  by  the  same  revolution  which  has  removed 
these  remains  of  elephants,  which  are  dug  up  in  the 
north  of  Europe,  in  Italy,  France  and  England. 

La  Metherie  supposes,  that  the  fresh  water  shells 
and  remains  of  quadrupeds,  about  Paris,  were  carried 
and  deposited  in  their  present  situation,  by  the  opera- 
tions of  marine  currents. — And  as  before,  M.  Cuvier,  in 
his  remarks  on  the  environs  of  Paris,  says,  that  "  a 
marked  character  of  a  great  irruption  from  the  south 
east,  is  impressed  on  the  summits,  and  in  the  direction 
of  the  principal  hills." 

Of  these  facts,  there  can  remain  no  doubt ;  almost 
every  country  in  Europe  and  Asia  affords  similar  ap~ 


181 

pearances,  and  such  as  to  justify  the  conclusion,  that 
these  mysterious  and  interesting  phenomena,  are  at- 
tributable, exclusively  to  the  force  and  operation  of 
currents,  that  once  overran  every  region  and  district 
of  country,  where  such  marks  and  appearances  are  pre- 
sented to  view. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Green  ooze,  or  mud. — From  time  immemorial  it 
has  been,  and  still  continues  to  be  a  custom  with 
mariners,  to  regard  the  soundings  (so  called)  which 
they  obtain,  as  indicative  of  a  particular  part  or  por- 
tion, or  even  a  whole  range  of  coast  to  which  they  are 
advancing  qr  along  which  they  may  be  coasting.  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  journals  of  most  navigators,  and  by 
some  historians ;  and  it  will  be  found  in,  by  far,  the 
greatest  number  of  cases,  that  at  the  depth  of  sixty 
fathoms,  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  composed  of  mud,  or 
by  some,  ooze. 

Herodotus  makes  particular  mention  of  this  circum- 
stance, and  observes,  "Of  this  fact  there  exists 
another  proof :  if  from  a  vessel  bound  to  Egypt,  the 
lead  be  thrown,  at  the  distance  of  a  day's  sailing  from 
the  shore,  it  will  come  up  at  the  depth  of  eleven 
fathoms  covered  with  mud,  plainly  indicating  that  it 
was  brought  there  by  the  water.7' — Book  %,  Chap.  5. 

Pocock  observes  that  i(  For  seven  or  eight  leagues 
from  the  land,  they  know  by  the  sounding  plummet  if 
they  are  near  Egypt,  as  within  that  distance  it  brings 
up  the  black  slimy  mud  of  the  Nile,  that  settles  at  the 


183 

bottom  of  the  sea,  which  is  often  of  great  use  in  navi- 
gation ;  the  low  land  of  this  country  not  being  seen 
afar  off."* 

Dr.  Shaw  says,  that  at  the  distance  of  twenty  leagues 
from  the  coast  of  Egypt  the  bottom  is  mud — "  so  far 
at  least,  by  sounding  this  mud  is  found  to  extend,  j-" 

It  is  more  than  probable,  that  from  ten  to  twenty 
leagues  from  either  shore  throughout  the  Mediterra- 
nean, a  similar  bottom  will  be  found  to  prevail.  But 
whether  or  not,  it  is  very  much  a  matter  of  doubt,  if 
the  mud,  mentioned  either  by  Herodotus  or  Dr.  Shaw, 
(which  was  about  the  same  distance  from  land)  was 
ever  carried  there  from  the  Nile.  The  sentiments 
which  Dr.  Shaw  has  expressed,  seem  to  indicate  doubts 
in  his  own  mind  on  this  point.  '•  Surely,"  says  he, 
"  the  soil  in  Ethiopia  (provided  the  Nile  reacheth  no 
further)  must  be  of  an  extraordinary  depth,  in  hav- 
ing, not  only  bestowed  upon  Egypt  so  many  thousand 
annual  strata,  but  laid  the  foundation  likewise  of  a 
future  addition  to  it  in  the  sea  to  the  distance  of  twen- 
ty leagues.'^ 

A  similar  inference  is  deducible  from  the  expres- 
sions of  Mr.  Bruce,  on  finding  mud  by  soundings  at 
the  distance  of  seventeen  leagues  west  of  Alexandria 
and  which  are  as  follows  : — 

u  From  this  I  inferred,  that  part  of  the  assertion,  that 
is  the  mud  of  the  Nile,  which  is  supposed  to  shew 
seamen  their  approach  to  Egypt,  is  mere  imagination ; 

*  Pocock's  Travels,     t  Shaw's  Travels,  page  432.      \  do.    do. 


184 

seeing  that  the  point  where  we  then  were,  was  really 
part  of  the  sea  opposite  to  the  desert  of  Barca,  and 
had  no  communication  whatever  with  the  Nile." 

"On  the  contrary,  the  Etesian  winds  blowing  all 
summer  upon  that  coast,  from  the  westward  of  north, 
and  a  current  setting  constantly  to  the  eastward,  it  is 
impossible  that  any  part  of  the  mud  of  the  Nile  can 
go  so  high  to  the  windward  of  any  of  the  mouths  of 
that  river."* 

If  we  examine  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  with  a  view 
to  its  character,  we  shall  find,  that  in  almost  every  sea 
and  latitude,  at  a  certain  depth,  we  have  an  oozy  or 
muddy  bottom. 

In  support  of  this  position,  I  might  fill  whole  pages 
from  the  journals  of  different  navigators  in  various 
parts  of  the  world ;  but  the  following  are  considered 
amply  sufficient. 

In  a  voyage  made  by  order  of  the  King  of  France 
in  1771  and  1773,  en  divers  parties  de  V Europe,  de 
I'JLfrique,  et  de  I'JLmerique  pour  Verifier  I'utilite  de 
plusier  methodes  et  instruments  serving  a  determiner 
la  latitude,  t£c.  par  Verdun  de  la  Creene,  le  Chevalier 
de  Border,  et  Pingre  Chancellor  de  Paris,  we  find 
the  following  report. 

Soundings  on  the  coast  of  Spain. 

t(  From  the  mole,  the  most  eastern  from  the  city 
(Cadiz)  called  point  de  St.  Croix,  at  the  distance  of, 
from  four  to  eight  cables  length,  it  is  good  anchorage, 
in  six  to  eight  fathoms,  muddy  bottom,v  (fond  de  vase.) 

*  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  I.  page  85. 


i85 

At  half  a  league,  before  entering  the  pass,  and  in 
the  pass  even,  quite  to  the  anchorage,  we  find  from 
eight  to  six  fathoms  of  water,   bottom  muddy  sand." 
—  Vol.  I.  page  43. 

"  In  the  lat.  of  the  bay  of  St.  Lucar  and  Sibeon, 
the  bottom  is  a  black  mud/'  (vase  noir.) 

"  In  the  lat.  of  Cadiz,  the  bottom  is  a  brown  mud 
and  sand,  mixed  with  mud. — Page  46. 

"  Near  the  Cape  de  Verd  islands  in  ten  and  a  half 
fathoms,  the  bottom  is  sand  and  corals." — Page  131. 

"  Near  the  island  St.  Jago  the  bottom  is  gravel  and 
coral." — Vol.  I.  page  164. 

On  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  from  lat.  45 1°  to 
46°  50'  the  soundings  are  as  follows  :  In  twenty-eight 
fathoms,  the  bottom  is  coarse  and  fine  sand  and  oursin, 
(sea  hedge  hog.) 

In  32  fathoms,         do.  do.  do. 

In  38  fathoms,  bottom  rocky.  In  lat.  46°  N.  and  in 
35  fathoms  water,  bottom  composed  of  flint  stones. 

In  42  fathoms,  bottom  is  shells  and  flints. 

In  eighty  fathoms,  the  bottom  is  of  black  mud.— 
Vol.  L  page  236. 

On  the  coast  of  Denmark,  from  lat.  64°  50'  the 
soundings  are  in  54  fathoms,  a  fine  grey  sand,  flints, 
little  shells  and  corals.  In  eighty-five  fathoms  the 
bottom  is  black  mud.  In  lat.  63°  50'  at  one  hundred 
fathoms  the  bottom  is  a  black  mud." — Vol.  I.  page  270. 

"  On  the  coast  of  Norway,  in  lat.  58°  50'  and  at 
one  hundred  and  seventy-five  fathoms,  the  bottom  is  a 


186 

soft  mud.     In  lat.  59°  50    and  at  eighty-five  fathoms 
the  bottom  is  muddy." 

"  In  lat.  60°  50'  and  as  they  approach  the  coast, 
the  bottom,  in  seventy-five  fathoms,  is  sand  and  gra- 
vel."— Vol.  I.  p.  274. 

"  On  the  coast  of  Jutland  at  a  small  depth,  the 
bottom  is  sand  and  gravel.  On  the  coast  of  Norway, 
on  the  contrary,  the  depth  of  water  is  considerable, 
and  at  the  bottom,  is  of  brown  or  black  mud." — 
Vol.  1.  page  S80. 

"  At  Copenhagen  at  eight  fathoms,  is  sand  and 
mud."— Page  288. 

"  In  the  German  ocean,  from  lat.  53°  50'  to  57°  50' 
the  soundings  at  thirty  fathoms  was  mud, — on  ap- 
proaching the  coast,  mud  and  sand, — at  twenty  fa- 
thoms, the  bottom  sand  and  gravel," — Vol.  I.  page  330. 

"  On  the  coast  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  three,  four,  and  five  leagues  from  Couron- 
ville,  and  at  the  depth  of  seventy,  to  seventy-five 
fathoms,  the  bottom  was  mud  and  some  sand." — 
Vol.  II.  page  13. 

"  On  the  coast  of  Africa,  from  Cape  Spartel,  to 
Cape  Blanc,  near  Assan,  we  find,  from  28  to  30 
fathoms  of  water,  a  grey  sandy  mud." — Vol.  II.  p.  33. 

"  On  the  coast  of  Sale  and  Fredale,  at  the  distance 
of,  one  mile  and  a  half  to  two  leagues  or  more,  we 
find  at  15,  S0?  25  and  thirty  fathoms  water,  a  bottom 
of  rock.  At  2|  leagues  the  bottom  is  sand.  From  three 
to  seven  or  eight  leagues,  and  at  from  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred fathoms,  the  bottom  is  mud." — Vol.  II.  page  37- 


187 

Off  cape  Courtin,  latitude  33°  8'  north,  at  two  leagues 
or  more,  there  is,  at  forty  and  fifty  fathoms  of  water,  a 
bottom  of  mud. —  Vol.  II.  page  39. 

Off  Mogador,  at  a  league  from  land,  we  have  twenty 
fathoms  of  water ;  at  two  leagues,  bottom  of  rock  ;  and 
at  three  and  four  leagues,  and  more,  and  at  thirty-five 
and  forty  fathoms  of  water,  the  bottom  is  mud,  with 
sand.* — Vol.  II.  page  40. 

I  have  been  thus  particular  to  give  the  different 
soundings,  in  order  to  show,  that  almost  uniformly,  as 
we  recede  from  the  coast  and  come  into  deep  water, 
the  bottom  of  the  ocean  is  mud  ;  differing  however  in 
its  characters,  in  different  places,  and  seldom  liable  to 
change  ;  hence  the  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
various  soundings  to  navigators,  who  well  know,  if 
they  are  skilful,  when  they  approach  a  particular  part 
of  a  coast  or  country,  by  this  highly  important  crite- 
rion. 

On  the  coast  of  West  Florida  and  of  Pensacola  bay, 
in  60  fathoms  water,  we  have  a  sandy  bottom.  At 
about  five  leagues  from  Mobile  bay  in  120  fathoms  wa- 
ter, we  have  a  bottom  of  mud  and  sand.f 

The  soundings  at  a  great  distance  to  the  eastward  of 
George's  banks,  on  the  coast  of  America,  and  what  is, 
I  believe,  called  Boston  channel,  and  at  the  depth  of 
sixty  or  seventy  fathoms,  discover  a  muddy  bottom, 
(or  what  is  commonly  called  by  mariners,  green  ooze,) 

*  See  Valentia's  Travels,  vol.  II,  page  261,  &c,  on  the  Sound- 
ings of  the  Red  Sea. 

t  See  Mr.  Darby's  excellent  map. 


188 

mixed  with  innumerable  little  shell-fish.  This  ever 
has  been,  and  continues  to  be  the  same,  from  the  time 
our  seas  were  first  navigated  to  the  present  day. 

It  is  the  same  off  Block  Island  channel,  so  called, 
gome  degrees  to  the  southward  and  westward,  and  con- 
tinues, with  some  variations,  at  a  similar  depth  through- 
out a  great  portion  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 

From  whence  then  comes  the  sand,  by  way  of  the 
sea,  to  form  our  great  alluvial  district  or  even  the 
smallest  part  of  it  ? 

George's  banks  comprize  a  very  great  extent  of  a 
pure  sandy  bottom,  and  in  some  places,  at  low  water, 
to  the  very  great  injury  of  navigation,  not  more  than 
from  three  to  five  fathoms  in  depth,  and  subject,  during 
a  gale  from  the  southward,  to  be  dreadfully  agitated 
and  torn  by  the  billows  of  the  ocean  ;  yet  not  a  bushel 
of  this  sand  has  ever  been  washed  upon  the  coast  due 
north,  and  west  of  it ;  if  there  has,  no  alluvial  forma- 
tion or  accession  to  the  coast  is  perceivable  in  those 
parts. 

It  may  be  said  that  George's  banks  are  to  the  north- 
ward of  the  gulf  stream,  and  consequently,  beyond  its 
influence.  This  is  admitted ;  but  the  Bahama  banks,  as 
well  known  as  the  latter,  are  constantly  subject  to  cur- 
rents, and  the  agitation  of  the  sea ;  yet  they  remain, 
and  ever  have  been,  the  same.  Capt.  Hiley  says, 
"  The  water  in  this  great  bank,  (the  Bahama)  in  most 
places,  appears  as  white  as  milk,  owing  to  the  white 
sand  at  the  bottom  gleaming  through  it,  and  is  so  clear, 
that  an  object,  the  size  of  a  dollar,  can  easily  be  seen, 


189 

lying  on  the  bottom  in  four  fathoms  water,  in  a  still 
tini'v'*  Yet,  as  before,  although  subject  to  currents, 
and  those  sometimes  strong  too,  not  one  particle  of  this 
sand  is  seen  to  move  on  the  bottom,  or  mixed  with  the 
water,  and  carried  away  by  the  currents. 

Were  we  to  admit  that  sand  is  thrown  upon  the 
shores  of  any  country,  by  the  sea,  in  a  quantity,  suffici- 
ent to  form  alluvial  districts,  we  might  expect  to  find 
similar  results,  by  the  operations  of  the  winds  and 
waves,  in  all  large  lakes  ;  more  particularly  such  as  re- 
ceive the  waters  and  alluvion  of  a  number  of  large  ri- 
vers ;  but  this  is  seldom  the  case,  although  the  waves 
in  many  lakes  rise  to  a  great  height,  and,  during  the 
prevalence  of  severe  and  long  continued  storms,  rage 
with  a  fearful  violence,  that  often  appals  the  stoutest 
heart,  whilst  they  seem  to  threaten  a  total  disruption 
of  their  natural  boundaries. 

There  are  many  lakes  and  bays  of  very  considerable 
extent,  that  afford  no  indications  of  alluvial  formations, 
by  the  sand  cast  upon  the  shores  by  the  waves  ;  and  if 
we  examine  the  subject  attentively,  it  is  by  no  means 
to  be  wondered  at,  for  the  bottom  of  most  lakes,  ex- 
cept where  rocks  prevail,  is,  like  that  of  the  sea,  com- 
posed of  mud ;  and  even  in  this  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  that  wonderful  and  rapid  accumulation,  which 
some  have  supposed. 

Considerable  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  lake 
Mseotis,  and  which  have,  most  probably,  been  produc- 

*  Riley's  Narrative,  page  25. 


190 

ed  by  the  depositions  from  the  Borysthenes  and  Te- 
nais,  which  pass  through  a  great  extent  of  low  alluvial 
tracts. 

It  was  from  this  circumstance  that  Polybius  was  in- 
duced to  believe,  that  the  entire  filling  up  of  the  Maeo- 
tis,  was  no  very  distant  event,  (lib.  iv.  c.  5.)  Yet  says 
Mr.  Rennell,  *'  The  operation,  however,  is  so  slow, 
that  it  may  reasonably  be  deemed  a  very  remote  event, 
at  present,  although  nearly  2000  years  have  elapsed, 
since  the  date  of  his  prediction.  Polybius,  it  seems, 
was  of  the  opinion,  that  in  his  time,  this  lake  was  not 
more  than  15  to  SO  feet  deep,  generally  ;  but,"  says 
Mr.  Rennell,  "  it  is  at  present  more  than  30,  and  in 
the  deepest  parts,  40  to  48."* 

In  the  lake  of  Geneva,  which  has  been,  perhaps,  as 
long  known  as  that  of  almost  any  other,  no  material 
change  I  believe  is  observable,  although  subject  to  the 
operations  of  torrents,  that  rush  into  it  with. inconcei- 
vable rapidity  from  the  sides  of  the  Alps. 

In  the  lake  of  Bala,  in  Wales,  which  is  13  miles  in 
length  and  six  in  breadth,  and  through  which  runs  the 
river  Dee,  Mr.  Mkins  could  find  no  indications  of 
alluvion,  nor  scarce  any  earthy  particles. f 

The  same  is  precisely  the  state  of  the  Cumberland 
and  Westmoreland  lakes ;  of  Lock  Lomond,  in  Scot- 
land ;  of  the  Locarno,  in  Italy ;  all  well  known  for  ages. 

Of  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  or  sea  of  Gallilee,  or  the  lake 
of  Gennessereth,  which  has  been  as  long,  if  not  lon- 

*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  page  69. 
t  Atkins's  Tour,  page  24. 


191 

ger  known  than  that  of  any  in  the  world,  no  apparent 
change  has  taken  place ;  neither  is  there  any  appear- 
ance of  its  heing  filled  up  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  water 
is  represented  as  clear  as  the  purest  crystal,  and  the 
bottom  covered  with  shining  pebbles,*  which  never 
would  have  been  the  case,  if  the  alluvion  were  constant- 
ly accumulating  upon  its  bottom. 

Many  similar  cases  could  be  mentioned,  all  tending 
to  prove  that  very  few  instances  occur,  in  whicli  allu- 
vial districts  have  been  formed,  upon  the  borders  of 
lakes,  by  the  sand  washed  up  by  the  waves  ;  and  also, 
that  the  mud,  of  which  the  bottom  of  most  lakes  is  com- 
posed, does  not  increase  in  quantity  so  rapidly  as  is 
pretended. 

These  remarks  are  as  applicable  to  bays  and  gulfs, 
of  the  sea,  as  to  lakes. 

Mr.  Klrwan  observes,  that  "No  part  of  the  allu- 
vion of  rivers  is  carried  to  any  great  distance  into  the 
sea.  Mariners  were  accustomed  for  some  centuries 
back,  to  discover  their  situations  by  the  kind  of  earth 
brought  up  by  their  plummets,  a  method  that  would 
prove  fallacious,  if  the  surface  of  the  bottom  did  not 
continue  invariably  the  same."f 

In  the  Adriatic  gulf,  which  is  surrounded  with  ex- 
tensive and  fertile  regions  in  the  highest  state  of  cul- 
tivation, and  the  soil  of  which  is  tributary  to  the  winds, 
rains,  and  mountain  torrents,  that  are  daily  hurrying 

•  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  II,  page  259. 
t  Kirwan's  Essays,  page  440. 


It  into  this  sea,  we  might  expect  to  find  an  increase  of 
alluvion  upon  its  bottom  ;  yet  the  Abbe  Fortis  relates, 
that  "  urns  which  were  thrown  into  the  Adriatic  more 
than  1400  years  ago,  instead  of  being  covered  with 
mud,  were  found  in  the  same  situation,  as  they  could 
be  supposed  to  have  been,  the  first  day  of  their  fall  to 
the  bottom."* 

Hence,  and  from  a  variety  of  other  circumstances,  we 
may  justly  conclude  that  but  a  very  small  portion  only 
of  our  alluvial  coast,  was  ever  formed  by  sand  thrown 
upon  the  shores  by  the  sea,  for  admitting  that  sand  is 
suspended  and  wafted  along  by  the  gulf  stream,  a  cir- 
cumstance which  I  am  inclined  to  believe  no  man  will 
admit,  who  has  ever  crossed  that  stream  in  different 
places,  and  given  himself  the  trouble  to  notice  the  wa- 
ter, as  soon  as  it  was  carried  beyond  the  influence  of 
that  current,  for  instance  to  the  northward  of  it,  be- 
tween the  gulf  stream  and  the  coast,  and  where  there 
is  no  current,  it  immediately  sinks  to  the  bottom  never 
to  rise  again  ;  for  sand,  or  silex,  of  which  the  sand  of 
our  sea  shores  is  formed,  being  specifically  three  times 
heavier  than  water,  it  is  both  morally  and  physically 
impossible,  that  it  can  be  long  suspended  in  that  element, 
unless  where  there  is  a  current  of  no  inconsiderable 
force  and  rapidity  to  keep  it  suspended,  and  waft  it 
along  with  the  stream.  Of  this  any  person  may  be 
easily  convinced,  by  examining  the  currents  of  our  ri- 
vers, in  any  part  of  our  country,  and  perhaps  those  of 
any  other. 

*  AbbeFortis'sTiavels,  page  282. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Liable  to  Decomposition. — There  is  not,  perhaps. 
a  more  prevalent  opinion,  or  one  more  generally  be- 
lieved, than  that  which  relates  to  the  universal  ten- 
dency of  every  species  of  rocks  to  a  slow,  but  pro- 
gressive state  of  disintegration,  or  decomposition. 
It  is  an  opinion  that  has  been  long  inculcated  and  re,- 
ceived,  and  so  deeply  impressed  are  many,  with  a 
belief  of  the  fact,  that  they  hesitate  not,  to  assert, 
that  the  solid  materials  which  constitute  the  body  of 
this  earth,  are  but  the  debris  of  a  former  world  that 
has  undergone  the  process  of  decomposition,  and  from 
which,  our  present  globe  is  composed. 

Was  it  not  that  such  an  assertion  is  tantamount  to 
a  libel  against  the  letter  and  spirit  of  Holy  Writ — 
and  also  the  tendency  of  such  a  declaration  to 
encourage  scepticism  aud  infidelity,  it  might  be  suffer- 
ed to  pass,  with  the  idle  winds  unheeded  and  without 
comment  or  notice.  But  the  tenor  of  such  an  hypo- 
thesis is  too  gross  and  improbable  for  belief,  and  de- 
serves the  pointed  animadversions  of — an  abler  pen 
than  mine. 

26 


194 

The  tendency,  or  liability  of  the  several  classes  of 
rocks  to  decomposition,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  ac- 
cording to  their  character  and  structure,  is  a  subject, 
of  itself,  highly  important,  and  sufficiently  ample,  if 
properly  treated,  for  a  copious  volume.  But  it  is  not 
consistent  with  the  plan  of  this  work,  nor  the  views 
with  which  1  set  out,  to  enter  into  a  minute  examina- 
tion of  facts  and  opinions  on  this  extensive  and  in- 
teresting topick. 

1  shall  therefore  content  myself  with  endeavouring, 
by  a  few  cursory  observations  and  remarks,  to  prove 
that  the  decomposition  of  rocks  is  not  a  process  so 
general  and  so  rapid  as  many  seem  disposed  to  be- 
lieve. 

One  of  the  principal  circumstances  that  gave  rise  to 
the  opinion,  that  our  mountains  are  daily  crumbling 
into  dust,  is,  in  part,  the  peculiar  tendency  of  some 
imperfectly  formed  rocks  to  fall  into  decay ;  but  more 
particularly,  the  amazing  quantity  of  alluvial  de- 
posites  that  have,  in  time,  accumulated  at  the  mouths 
of  numerous  rivers ;  and  which,  it  is  believed,  are 
made  up  of  the  debris  of  decomposed  rocks  which 
have  been  washed  by  rains  into  creeks,  thence  into 
rivers,  and  by  the  rivers  wafted  to  the  sea  and  de- 
posited. 

It  is  from  this  that  Herodotus,  Pliny  and  Aristotle, 
drew  the  inference,  that  Egypt  was  entirely  the  gift  of 
the  Nile. 


195 

It  is  from  this,  that  the  Ethiopians  assume  to  them- 
selves a  share  of  credit,  iu  saying  that  Egypt  is  in- 
debted to  them  for  its  origin.* 

It  is  to  this,  that  Peiresc  and  Colonne  predicted 
that  Venice  would,  one  day,  be  united  to  the  continent. 

To  the  same  cause,  Ifircker  and  others  attribute  the 
formation  of  the  alluvial  district  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber  ;  and  to  the  same  also,  Piganiol  imputes  the  for- 
mation of  the  alluvial  grounds,  by  the  Vidourle  and 
Vistre. 

From  this  cause,  it  is  alleged,  that  the  plains  of 
llpussillon  have  been  formed  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  Pyrennees,f  and  it  is  from  this  process,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  in  active  operation  in  those  moun- 
tains, that  Louis  the  XIV.  was  led  to  observe  to  his 
little  son,  that  the  time  would  arrive,  when  the  Py- 
rennees  would  be  reduced  to  a  level  with  the  vallies, 
or  in  other  words,  that  posterity  would  one  day  say, 
the  Pyrennees  no  longer  exist.f 

It  is  pretended  by  some,  and  I  have  even  heard  it 
alleged,  that  this  was  not  the  true  intent  and  meaning 
of  the  expression  of  Louis  to  his  son  :  but,  on  the 
contrary,  (as  at  that  time  it  was  hoped  and  expected 
that  Spain  would  one  day  be  united  to  France,)  that 
the  Pyrennees  would  no  longer  exist  as  a  boundary 
between  the  two  countries. 


*  Mineral  de  Pyrennees,    by  Palassau. 

t  Palassau,  Mineral  de  Pyrennees,  page  302.        J  Do  p.  87. 


196 

tlowever  that  may  have  been,  it  seems  more  than 
probable,  that  in  a  familiar  conversation  on  the  pheno- 
mena of  nature,  Louis  may  have  meant  to  convey  to 
his  son  the  idea,  that  by  the  changes  of  temperature 
the  operations  of  heat  and  cold,  promoting  a  decompo- 
sition of  rocks  ;  and  also  by  the  operations  of  winds 
and  torrents  of  rain,  which  convey  the  debris  into  the 
vallies  ;  the  mountains  would,  at  length,  be  reduced  to 
a  level  with  them.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  not  essen- 
tial to  the  subject  in  view. 

That  almost  every  species  of  rock  is  liable  to  de- 
composition, in  a  certain  degree,  is  admitted.  That 
some  are  much  more  liable  than  others,  is  equally 
certain.  That  some  kinds  are  subject  to  an  entire  de- 
composition, cannot  be  denied.  But  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  degree,  or  tendency  of  the  several  kinds  of 
rocks  to  decomposition,  and  the  extent  to  which  they 
are  liable ;  and  also,  the  degree  of  influence  which 
such  a  change  may  have  had,  in  producing  the  won- 
derful results,  that  are  supposed  by  many  to  have 
taken  place,  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  cursory  view  of 
the  several  kinds  most  prevalent,  and  of  which  the 
crust  of  our  globe  appears  to  be  composed,  in  order 
that  we  may  be  enabled  to  form  some  correct  ideas  of 
the  extent  of  this  operation. 

Rocks,  it  is  well  known,  are  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing classes,  viz.  primitive,  transition,  secondary  or 
floetz,  alluvial,  and  volcanick.  These  are  again  sub- 
divided into  their  several  kinds.  The  different  kinds 
of  rocks  arranged  under  the  denomination  of  granite. 


197 

are  mostly  composed  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica.  Of 
those  three  substances,  the  felspar  and  mica,  are,  from 
the  character  of  their  component  parts,  most  liable  or 
subject  to  decomposition :  the  former  in  particular, 
when  it  contains  a  portion  of  potash,  as  it  sometimes 
does  ;  and  the  latter  when  exposed  by  itself  to  all  the 
vicissitudes  of  temperature  or  weather — But  when  the 
felspar  is  of  the  common  kind,  and  free  from  potash 
or  any  other  substance  out  of  the  common  order,  calcula- 
ted to  promote  a  decomposition,  and  when  the  three  sub- 
stances are  perfectly  combined,  so  as  to  form  compact 
granite,  or  any  of  its  subordinate  divisions,  as  gneiss, 
sienite,  mica  slate,  &c.  but  very  little  appearance  of 
decomposition  takes  place,  though  exposed  to  the  chan- 
ges of  seasons  for  ages  in  succession,  as  I  shall  en- 
deavour to  prove  in  the  sequel. 

The  only  substance,  then,  that  comes  under  the  de- 
nomination of  granite,  most  subject  to  decomposition, 
is  the  coarse  imperfectly  formed  micaceous  schistus,  or 
schistose  mica,  in  which  the  mica  predominates,  and  is 
very  commonly  intermixed  with  sulphuret  of  iron, 
which,  by  its  decomposition,  promotes  that  of  the 
whole  mass.  This  substance  commonly  occurs 
among  the  strata  of  gneiss,  and,  except  in  some 
instances,  is  not  very  abundant.  How  little  then 
can  be  derived  from  this  source,  towards  the  filling 
np  of  valleys,  or  the  formation  of  alluvial  dis- 
tricts ?  More  particularly  so,  since  neither  this,  nor 
either  of  the  other  three  classes  of  rocks,  are  subject 
to  decomposition,  except  being  actually  exposed  to  the 


1U8 

atmosphere.  By  this  expression,  I  do  not  mean  to  de- 
ny that  some  of  the  simple  component  parts  of  rocks, 
are  sometimes,  when  exposed  to  waters  filtrating 
through  the  great  mass,  found  in  a  decomposed  state  ; 
such  may  have  been  the  case  of  kaolin,  mica,  and  a 
number  of  other  mineral  substances ;  but  not  being 
subject  to  the  operations  of  wind,  rains,  &c.  afford 
little  or  no  addition  or  increase,  to  the  subjacent  dis- 
tricts, nor  to  alluvial  formations.  Among  the  second 
class  of  rocks,  or  those  of  the  transition  kind,  we  find 
that  there  are  but  two  species  which  are  peculiarly 
liable  to  decomposition  ;  (viz.)  The  porous,  or  imper- 
fectly formed  trap,  and  Gray  Wack.  The  aggregate 
proportion  which  these  bear,  to  that  of  the  general 
mass  of  rocks  that  are  presented  to  view  upon  our 
globe,  is  comparatively  small ;  and  although  at  first 
view  we  should  be  inclined  to  believe,  from  their  struc- 
ture, that  they  are  liable  in  an  eminent  degree,  to  decom- 
position, it  will  be  found,  on  a  close  examination 
of  the  several  circumstances  necessary  to  be  taken  into 
view,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  fact,  that  the  progress  of 
decomposition,  even  of  these  rocks,  is  not  so  extensive 
and  so  rapid,  as  is  generally  believed. 

Among  rocks  of  the  third  class,  or  those  of  secondary 
formation,  and  also  those  of  the  alluvial  kind,  which 
I  am  disposed  to  consider  as  of  a  ternary  formation, 
the  several  kinds  of  red  sand- stone,  and  the  sand  or 
free  stone  of  mote  recent  formation,  are  those  most  sub- 
ject to  decomposition.  Of  these  the  former  do  not  con- 
stitute a  very  large  proportion  in  the  scale  of  rocks, 


199 

and,  although  sometimes  found  in  situations  highly 
elevated,  do  not  contribute  so  abundantly  to  the  forma- 
tion of  alluvial  districts,  nor,  by  decomposition  even,  to 
the  increase  of  the  soil  which  they  often  overhang. 
With  the  latter  I  am  ready  to  admit,  that  from  its  in- 
compact and  pulverulent  texture,  it  is  not  only  liable 
to  be  decomposed,  but  is  rendered  unfit,  except  in  some 
instances,  for  the  purposes  of  civil  architecture.  Yet 
however  liable  it  may  be  to  decay,  it  forms  but  a  small 
integrant  part  in  the  great  mass  of  rocks,  and  common- 
ly lies  low  and  is  mostly  covered ;  consequently  con- 
tributes but  little  either  in  the  formation  of  soil  or  al- 
luvion. 

Having  briefly  considered  some  of  the  rocks  most 
liable  to  decomposition,  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  slight 
view  of  such  as  are  least  subject  to  disintegration.  Of 
these  may  be  considered, 

Granite,  Primitive  trap, 

Gneiss,  Do     silicious  slate, 

Sienite,  Secondary  lime  stone, 

Compact  mica  slate,      Green  stone, 
Clay  slate  (argillite)     Porphyries, 
Primitive  lime  stone,     Quartzose    rocks,     &c.   all 
which  are  the  most  predominant  in  the  great  scale  of 
rocks,  and  most  of  which  are  employed  in  the  various 
departments    of  civil  architecture,  sculpture,   statua- 
ry, &c. 

Previous  to  entering  into  any  remarks  on  the  decom- 
position of  these  last  mentioned  rocks,  it  may  not  be 
amiss  to  consider  what  is  the  nature,  or  actual  cause, 


200 

or  causes  of  the  decomposition  of  rocks ;  and  the  ex- 
tent to  which  we  are  to  admit  the  term ;  for  it  seems 
not  unfrequently  misapplied. 

The  destruction  of  mountains  or  rocks,  does  not  vir- 
tually imply  the  decomposition  of  either. 

Mountains  and  rocks  may  be  broken  down  sudden- 
ly, or  gradually  by  the  following  causes  :  First,  by 
repeated  shocks  of  an  earthquake.  In  this  instance, 
they  are  generally  displaced  in  large  masses,  and  often 
removed  to  a  considerable  distance  from  their  original 
gisement,  particularly  so,  on  the  sides  of  mountains. 
Secondly,  rocks  of  a  columniform  structure,  fissuratetl 
or  stratified,  are  often  displaced  and  thrown  down,  by 
the  slow  and  imperceptible  growth  of  vegetables, 
which  annually  shoot  the  fibres  of  their  roots  further 
and  further  into  the  open  crevices,  and  by  gradual  ex- 
pansion, force,  little  by  little,  the  ponderous  mass  from 
its  balance,  until  it  falls,  frequently  from  an  awful 
height,  and  with  a  tremendous  crash.  This  is  a  pow- 
erful agent,  not  only  in  the  disruption  of  rocks,  but  in 
the  demolition  of  old  towers  and  other  buildings. 
Scarcely  will  it  be  believed  that  effects  so  astonishing 
could  be  produced  by  causes,  in  themselves  so  unim- 
portant and  seemingly  trifling.  But  numerous  are  the 
instances  in  which  the  ponderous  materials  of  lofty  tow- 
ers, antiquated  abbeys,  and  splendid  palaces,  have,  by 
slow  and  imperceptible  gradations,  been  lifted,  piece  by 
piece,  from  the  adhesive  cement  of  their  moss-grown 
walls,  and  tumbled,  in  promiscuous  ruin,  at  their 


201 

bases,  where  they  remain,  unimpaired  and  uninjured 
for  ages,  though  exposed  to  all  the  vicissitudes  of  tem- 
perature ;  and  at  the  same  time  composed  of  the  very 
materials  as  the  rocks  in  the  quarries,  hills,  or  moun- 
tains, which  are  said  to  be  rapidly  progressing  in  a 
state  of  decomposition.  This  is  a  fact  1  wish  may  be 
kept  in  view. 

These  effects  may  appear  strange,  but  the  fact  is  no 
less  true,  that  a  single  tuft  of  grass,  implanted  upon  the 
top  of  a  wall  of  masonry,  will,  in  time,  if  not  disturb- 
ed, injure  its  texture  and  break  up  its  materials. 
What  then  may  we  not  expect,  where  the  ivy  and  other 
vines  are  spreading  their  luxuriant  branches  over  the 
deserted  walls,  and  annually  forcing  their  numberless 
little  wedges  or  tendrils,  into  every  hole  and  crevice^ 
and  gradually  expanding,  and  uniting  their  forces,  in 
the  destruction  of  the  noblest  works  of  man,  who,  with 
so  much  care,  has  reared  them  to  increase  his  glory 
and  perpetuate  his  fame. 

Thirdlv. — Rocks  of  a  description  similar  to  those 
last  mentioned  and  such  as  are  composed  of  irregular 
and  amorphous  masses  lying  in  a  juxta  position,  yet 
imperfectly  united,  are  liable  to  disruptions,  to  be  shat- 
tered and  broken  down,  not  only  by  the  two  latter 
causes,  but  by  the  alternations  of  heat  and  cold,  wet  and 
dry. 

Almost  all  substances,  rocks  and  stones  as  well  as 
other  things,  are,  on  exposure  to  heat,  liable  to  ex- 
pansion in  a  degree  proportioned  to  the  degree  of 
beat  absorbed ;  and  to  a  shrinking  on  the  reverse  of 

27 


S03 

temperature.  This  has  a  tendency  to  loosen  the  im- 
perfectly connected  masses  of  rock  thus  exposed  and 
to  facilitate  the  admission  of  water,  during  heavy 
rains,  into  the  crevices.  When  this  occurs  at  the  tem- 
perature of  the  freezing  point,  the  water  is  congealed, 
and  by  its  expansion,  rocks  of  an  enormous  size,  as  well 
as  smaller  masses,  have  often  been  broken  up  from 
their  lofty  situations  and  tumbled  to  the  mountain's 
base.  This  being  annually  repeated,  through  a  lapse 
of  ages,  occasions,  in  numerous  instances,  an  immense 
accumulation  of  debris  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
which,  by  the  annual  growth  and  decomposition  of 
vegetable  substances,  and  the  sand  and  dust,  brought 
by  the  winds  and  deposited  in  the  interstices,  assumes 
somewhat  of  an  uniform  appearance,  such,  at  least,  as 
to  induce  a  belief  that  the  whole  mass  thus  accumula- 
ted is  the  result  of  decomposition. 

But  I  can  in  no  wise,  view  it  as  such.  Were  we  to 
explore  those  new  formed  districts,  by  cutting  a  hori- 
zontal drift  about  midway  up  their  sides,  we  should  find 
the  fallen  masses  lying,  like  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
cities  of  Egypt,  in  promiscuous  disorder,  as  unchanged 
in  form  and  texture  almost  as  when  detached  from  the 
parent  rock.  This,  therefore,  cannot  be  called  the 
result  of  actual  decomposition; — but  rather  the  dis- 
ruption, or  breaking  up  of  rocks  by  accidental  causes, 
which  are  by  no  means  common  to  all. 

It  now  remains  to  consider  the  nature,   causes,  and 
extent,  of  the  decomposition  of  rocks. 


203 

The  very  terra  decomposition  ^implies,  in  my  view 
of  the  subject,  the  entire  reduction  of  a  rock  or  other 
mineral  substances,  in  whole  or  in  part,  to  its  integrent 
moleculae  ;  at  least  so  far  as  to  be  susceptible  of  being 
carried  away  by  the  winds,  rains,  &c. 

*  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe,  that  the  word  decomposition,. in 
this  instance,  is  taken  or  used  in  a  limited  sense,  that  is,  as  differ- 
ing in  some  degree  from  that  of  disintegration. 

For  example,  a  rock  or  mass  of  imperfectly  formed  gneiss,  gra- 
nular lime-stone,  dolomite, or  sand  stone,  falling  into  small  grains, 
may  be  said  to  have  undergone  the  process  of  disintegration.  But 
if  the  felspar  which  forms  a  constituent  part  of  the  gneiss,  should 
fall  into  an  impalpable  powder  or  paste  like  substance,  as  is  the 
case  with  petunze,  when  changed  into  kaolin,  it  may  be  said  to 
have  undergone  a  partial  decomposition. 

The  decomposition  of  a  substance,  is  a  very  common  expres* 
sion  made  use  of  to  denote  the  wasting  or  gradual  disappearance 
of  some  earthy  or  mineral  substances.  But  the  word  decomposed, 
(whence  decomposition)  technically  used,  implies  the  resolving  or 
dissolving  of  a  mixed  body,  or  in  other  words,  the  reduction  of 
a  body  or  substance,  by  some  chemical  or  other  process,  to  its 
elementary  principles. 

Hence,  it  would  never  answer  to  be  applied,  in  its  full  extent,  in 
the  destruction  of  mountains,  the  disintregration  of  rocks,  or  the 
wasting  away  and  disappearance  of  earthy  and  mineral  substances 
by  which  the  common  soil  whence  we  derive  our  subsistence,  is  form- 
ed ;  for  the  integrant  moleculae  of  rocks,  and  of  which  we  will  sup- 
pose our  soil  to  be  composed,  being  alike  subject  to  the  operations 
of  the  same  agent,  would  likewise  be  reduced  to  the  elementary 
princi  pies,  and  we  should  have  no  soil  at  all. 

This  fact  ought  to  be  kept  in  view  by  those  who  so  strenuously 
advocate  the  perpetual  decomposition  or  utter  wasting  away  of  the 
solid  materials,  of  which  the  crust  of  this  globe  is  composed  5  an 
opinion  as  absurd  and  inconsistent,  as  unphilosophical. 


The  cause  or  causes  by  which  this  change  is  produ- 
ced, may  be  considered  as  two  fold,  (viz.)  the  one  che- 
mical, the  other  mechanical. 

One  of  the  instances  in  which  the  decomposition  of 
mineral  substances  occur,  by  chemical  causes,  is  that, 
perhaps,  of  Kaolin,  or  rather  Petunze,  which,  by  the 
quantity  of  potash  it  may  contain,  attracts  moisture  to 
a  degree  sufficient  to  reduce  the  whole  to  the  state  of 
Kaolin  or  a  paste  like  substance. 

Another  instance  is  such  as  is  mentioned  by  Denon, 
with  respect  to  the  mountains  of  the  Lybian  range, 
where  the  decomposition  of  the  rocks  is  promoted,  it  is 
supposed,  by  the  highly  saline  state  of  the  air.* 

The  decomposition  of  rocks  is  again,  supposed  to  be 
occasioned  by  a  kind  of  lixivium  that  is  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  vegetable  substances,  and  which  in- 
filtrates through  the  superincumbent  soil  down  upon 
the  rocks,  producing  thereby  a  kind  of  chemical  de- 
composition, differing  in  some  degree  from  the  common 
process  of  disintegration. 

There  are  some  instances  which,  at  first  view,  are 
calculated  to  favour  this  opinion,  and  give  to  it  a  great 
degree  of  plausibility — but  a  more  general  investiga- 
tion of  the  subject  will  not  justify  the  conclusion. 

For  example — It  has  often  occurred  that  the  soil,  or 
earth  on  the  sides  of  mountains,  being  almost  saturated 
with  water,  slides  down,  in  immense  bodies  covered 

*  Denon's  Travels,  vol.  2.  p.  2d. 


205 

with  verdure,  into  the  valleys  below,  leaving  the  rocks 
beneath,  apparently  in  a  state  of  decomposition. 

But  this  newly  formed  surface,  composed  of  loose 
and  confused  fragments  of  imperfectly  formed  rocks 
and  stones,  mixed  with  earth,  being  exposed  to  the 
operations  of  rain  and  torrents  of  water,  are  hurried 
down  the  steep  into  the  valley  ;  until  at  length,  the 
firm  and  solid  mass  is  exposed  to  view,  and  no  longer 
exhibits  those  striking  appearances  of  decomposition. 

Again,  in  digging  a  few  feet  into  the  earth  over  a 
bed  of  rocks,  we  come  into  a  similar  covering  of  the 
strata.  As  we  descend,  the  mass  becomes  more  and 
more  compact,  until  we  arrive  at  the  solid  and  perfectly 
formed  rocks. 

These,  and  many  more,  are  instances,  calculated  to 
favour  the  opinion,  that  the  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter,  through  a  lapse  of  ages,  may  have  had  a  con- 
siderable influence  in  producing  this  apparent  change. 
But  if  we  cut  through  a  hill  where  the  earth  is  fifty  or 
a  hundred  feet  deep  above  the  rocks,  and  through 
which  no  menstruum  could  have  been  infiltrated,  of 
sufficient  strength  to  decompose  any  mineral  substance, 
we  find  tbe  same  appearances. 

Again.  If  we  dig  down  to  a  small  or  great  depth 
upon  solid  compact  granite,  lime-stone,  and  some  other 
rocks,  we  find  no  such  appearance,  though  but  a  few 
feet  below  the  surface — Besides  it  frequently  happens 
that  the  soil  from  the  sides  of  mountains,  slides  down, 
as  before,  and  leaves  the  above  mentioned  rocks  expo- 


206 

sed  to  view  in  a  solid  mass,  with  little  or  no  appear- 
ance of  a  superincumbent  decomposed  matter. 

Hence,  it  seems  that  this  appearance  in  rocks, 
though  similarly  situated,  is  not  general.  Therefore 
could  not  have  been  the  result  of  a  chemical  decompo- 
sition from  the  infiltration  of  any  menstruum  from 
the  surface  of  the  earth. 

The  instances  in  which  those  appearances  occur, 
seem  to  be  mostly  confined  to  stratified  or  schistose 
rocks  ;  and  as  they  are  thus  found  at  various  depths 
in  the  earth,  I  am  disposed  to  consider  it  as  the  result 
of  an  imperfect  formation — a  consequence  of  the  min- 
eralizing powers  acting  with  less  force  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ridge  of  rocks,  (though  at  a  great  depth  in 
the  earth)  than  below,  where  the  deposition,  or  crystal- 
lization commenced.  Of  this,  if  we  consider  the  for- 
mation of  rocks  as  the  result  of  deposition,  or  crystal- 
lization, we  shall  find  analogous  cases,  sufficiently 
abundant  in  every  chemical  laboratory,  to  justify  the 
conclusion. 

The  principal  and  most  efficient  cause  then,  of  the 
decomposition  of  rocks,  appears,  without  going  into  a 
further  investigation  of  the  subject,  to  be  the  following 
degrees  of  temperature,  viz.  moist,  or  wet  and  dry, 
heat  and  cold. 

The  effects  of  these,  on  a  variety  of  species  of  rocks, 
is  too  obvious  and  palpable  to  be  denied.  But  how- 
few  are  they  ?  What  proportion  do  they  constitute 
of  the  great  mass  of  rocks  that  compose  the  outer  crust 


207 

t 

of  this  globe  ?  For  I  speak  only  of  the  rocks  of  our 
mountains  and  those  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
not  of  those  below  the  depth  that  have,  as  yet,  been  ex- 
plored. To  what  extent  is  the  process  of  decomposi- 
tion carried,  and  what  are  the  effects  of  those  agents 
upon  substances  the  most,  as  well  as  the  least,  suscep- 
tible of  their  operations  ? 

To  determine  this  question,  it  is  necessary  to  exam- 
ine the  nature  and  capacity  of  the  substances  to  be  act- 
ed upon,  and  the  force  or  influence,  which  those  agents 
are  capable  of  exercising  upon  these  substances  ;  and 
also  the  effects  thereby  produced. 

All  mineral  substances  have  the  capacity  of  imbi- 
bing, or  rather  of  absorbing  heat,  or  calorick  :  some  in 
a  greater,  and  others  in  a  less  degree  ;  consequently, 
their  constituent  particles  are  more  or  less  subject  to 
expansion  :  by  the  abstraction  of  heat  they  are  liable  to 
a  proportionate  degree  of  contraction.  Hence  sub- 
stances of  a  foliated,  or  granular  texture,  when  expos- 
ed to  a  high  or  low  degree  of  temperature,  and  fre- 
quently alternated,  lose,  in  part,  their  adhesive  quality, 
become  weakened,  and  are  disposed  to  disintegrate. 
Thus,  a  hexadral  prism  of  mica,  when  taken  from  a 
rock,  or  its  gangue,  appears  like  a  solid  prism  ;  sub- 
ject it  repeatedly  to  the  operations  of  heat,  even  of  the 
sun,  and  cold,  and  the  laminae  will  separate  sponta- 
neously, so  as  to  be  perceptible.  The  same  effect  is 
produced  upon  several  of  the  granular  substances  des- 
titute of  cement :  hence  a  gradual  disintegration  of  the 
part  exposed  5  but  the  several  species  of  rocks  liable. 


SOS 

from  this  cause,  to  disintegration,  are  small  in  number 
and  therefore  extremely  limited  in  these  results. 

There  are,  likewise,  a  variety  of  mineral  substances 
liable,  from  their  structure,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
to  the  absorption  of  water.  Repeated  exposure  of  sub- 
stances in  this  state,  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  is  another 
cause  of  a  slow  disintegration  ;  but  the  most  powerful 
agent  in  the  decomposition  of  rocks,  of  any  perhaps  to 
which  they  are  exposed,  is  the  operations  of  cold,  when 
it  arrives  at  the  freezing  point.  Very  few  of  the  in- 
compact or  imperfectly  formed  mineral  substances, 
when  having  absorbed  a  quantity  of  water,  and  being 
exposed  to  freezing,  can  resist  the  force  of  its  opera- 
tions, nor  long  preserve  their  form  entire. 

But  even  the  effects  of  this  agent,  as  powerful  as  it 
may  be,  are,  nevertheless,  limited ;  and  it  is  only  on 
such  rocks  as  are  destitute  of  a  cement,  that  it  can  ex- 
ercise its  powers  to  a  degree  sufficient  to  destroy  their 
texture,  and  cause  a  disintegration.  Of  this  we  have 
sufficient  proofs  in  the  effects  which  are  produced  on 
all  mineral  substances  by  its  operation.  A  rock  or 
stone  having,  by  exposure  to  rains,  &c.  absorbed  a 
quantity  of  water,  and  in  that  state  exposed  to  in- 
tense cold,  and  repeatedly  frozen,  is  gradually  reduc- 
ed to  sand  or  dust ;  and  in  the  following  manner  : — 
The  water  absorbed  by  mineral  substances,  insinu- 
ates itself  between  all,  the  particles  to  a  certain  depth  5 
by  freezing,  it  expands,  and  the  cohesion  of  the  par- 
ticles is  thereby  destroyed  and  broken  up.  As  soon 
as  the  weather  moderates  so  as  to  dissolve  the  ice, 


309 

the  stony  particles  being  without  support,  separate 
from  each  other,  and  fall  from  the  mass.  This,  it  is 
universally  admitted,  is  the  manner  in  which  the  disin- 
tegration of  rocks  is  produced,  by  the  operations  of 
cold,  or  by  frost. 

Having  ascertained  the  manner  in  which  this  agent 
acts  in  the  decomposition  of  rocks,  or  other  mineral 
substances,  we  are  enabled  by  certain  criteria,  precise- 
ly to  ascertain,  the  substances  liable  to  its  effects,  and 
the  full  extent  of  its  power  and  influence  upon  all  mi- 
neral substances. 

For  example,  let  a  mass  of  sand  stone,  dolomite,  or 
other  substance,  in  the  form  of  a  cube  of  any  dimension, 
be  emersed  in  water,  or  subjected  to  rain,  until  the  wa- 
ter has  penetrated  to  the  depth  of  one  inch  in  every  face 
of  the  cube ;  then  let  the  mass  be  exposed  to  a  degree 
of  cold,  that  shall  freeze  it  to  the  same  depth  that  the 
water  has  penetrated  ;  afterwards  let  the  mass  be  sub- 
jected to  a  degree  of  heat,  that  shall  operate  uniformly 
upon  each  face  of  the  cube,  until  the  frost  is  removed, 
and  the  substance  of  the  mass  falls  away  to  the  extreme 
depth  to  which  it  was  frozen. 

What  sort  of  a  figure  will  the  mass  represent  under 
such  circumstances  ?  Not,  certainly,  that  of  a  regular 
cube;  every  point  and  angle  thus  exposed,  will  be 
rounded  down,  and  if  the  operation  be  repeated,  for  in- 
stance, through  a  succession  of  seasons,  the  mass  will 
become  a  sphere,  and  thus  progress  until  reduced  to  a 
point,  or  completely  dissolved. 

38 


210 

This  is  precisely  the  effect  of  frost  or  intense  cold, 
upon  all  mineral  substances  susceptible  of  its  opera- 
tions, and  is  that  which  constitutes  one  of  the  criteria, 
by  which  we  are  to  determine  the  extent  of  its  power, 
in  the  disintegration  and  decomposition  of  rocks. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  explain  (though  it  can  scarce- 
ly seem  necessary,)  the  manner  in  which  heat  and 
cold  or  frost  operate  to  reduce  a  cubick  mass  of  stone, 
to  that  of  a  spherical  form, 

It  is,  doubtless,  well  known,  that  when  water  is  ap- 
plied to  two  or  more  sides  of  a  rock  in  the  form  of  a 
cube,  or  any  other  angular  body  capable  of  imbibing 
it,  the  water  is  gradually  absorbed ;  as  it  penetrates 
the  mass  from  the  two  sides,  it  meets  at  the  angles 
where  it  is  thinest,  and  its  force  is  then  directed  diago* 
nally  towards  the  centre,  where  the  particles  of  the 
substance  are  disposed  to  receive  it,  until,  perhaps,  it 
becomes  saturated  ;  and  that  too  to  a  greater  distance 
from  the  point  of  the  angle  towards  the  centre,  than 
from  either  of  the  two  sides  towards  the  centre. 

The  operations  of  cold  or  frost,  and  heat,  are  exactly 
similar.  When  the  cold  is  sufficiently  intense  to  freeze 
the  mass,  to  the  depth  at  which  the  water  has  penetrated, 
the  particles  of  the  substance  are,  by  the  expansion  of 
the  water,  broken  up  and  displaced.  As  the  cold  is 
abstracted  by  the  application  or  absorption  of  heat, 
which  penetrates  the  mass  in  the  same  way  or  manner, 
a  disintegration  of  the  substances  takes  place,  and  ex- 
tends to  the  depth  to  which  it  was  frozen.  When  this 
is  finished,  for  the  season  for  instance,  the  mass  no 


211 

longer  presents  a  cube,  but  a  figure  materially  reduced, 
and  its  corners  or  angles  rounded  and  irregular. 
Thus  if  the  process  be  frequently  repeated,  the  cube 
will  be  reduced  to  a  spherical  form. 

These  are  decidedly  the  specifick  operations  of  wet 
and  dry,  heat  and  cold,  in  the  disintegration  and  de- 
composition of  all  rocks,  and  other  mineral  substances, 
susceptible  of  their  effects. 

Of  this  fact  we  may,  without  going  among  the  rocks, 
see  a  striking  illustration  in  that  of,  what  is  called,  a 
"  slack  burnt  brick"  exposed  to  their  effects.  In  the 
course  of  two  seasons,  a  brick  of  this  description  thus 
exposed,  will  be  reduced  from  a  parallelogram  to  an 
oblate  elipsis 

A  similar  effect  is  produced  by  the  operation  of  heat 
upon  wood.  Subject  a  piece  of  wood,  in  the  form  of  a 
cube,  or  that  of  a  triangle,  to  heat,  until  it  be  ignited, 
and  the  angles,  from  the  same  cause,  are  the  first  to  be 
on  fire  ;  and  if  it  be  alternately  ignited,  and  the  carbon 
removed  to  the  depth  at  which  it  has  penetrated,  it  will 
at  length  be  reduced  nearly  to  that  of  a  sphere. 

Taking  these  facts  for  granted,  let  us  see  how  far 
the  several  kinds  of  rocks,  and,  particularly,  those  of 
the  primitive  formation,  are  operated  on  or  effected  by 
those  agents. 

1st.  The  old  red,  the  ferruginous,  and  variegated 
sand  stones,  are  considered  among  those  that  are  liable 
to  disintegration  by  frost,  &c. 

If  we  examine  these  rocks  in  their  natural  or  primi- 
tive situation,  they  frequently  present  appearances 


which  favour  the  opinion  that  they  have  suffered,  in 
course  of  time,  a  considerable  diminution,  and  that 
from  the  accumulation  of  small  irregular  masses,  and 
grains,  apparently  of  the  same  substance,  lying  upon 
and  about  these  rocks  :  but  who  can  pretend  to  say 
that  these  are  not  the  debris  of  the  incompact  or  im- 
perfectly formed  mass  that  served  as  the  covering  as 
it  were  of  the  rocks,  and  which  being  destitute  of  a  ce- 
ment have  fallen  into  sand.  This  part  or  portion,  it  is 
readily  admitted,  does  not  nor  cannot  resist  the  opera- 
tions of  those  agents.  But  do  the  great  masses  of 
these  rocks,  when  perfectly  formed,  betray  unequivo- 
cal signs  of  disintegration  from  this  cause  ?  Are  they 
all  in  the  form  of  boulders  with  their  corners  rounded 
down  as  they  inevitably  must  be  if  reduced  by  frost? 
On  the  contrary,  are  not  their  points  and  angles  entire, 
presenting  a  rude  and  craggy  surface  ?  I  will  venture 
to  answer  that  in  most  instances  they  are  so.  If  not 
however,  why  is  it  that  masses  detached  from  a  ridge 
of  this  kind  of  rock,  and  employed  in  civil  architec- 
ture, and  exposed  to  all  the  vicissitudes  of  seasons 
and  temperature,  should  remain  uninjured  and  without 
any  visible  change,  for  an  immense  period  of  time, 
though  equally  subject  to  the  pelting  of  rains,  the  ab- 
sorption of  water,  and  the  severity  of  the  most  in- 
tense cold  and  frost  ?  Perhaps  it  will  be  urged  that 
materials  of  this  kind  employed  in  perpendicular 
walls,  are  not  so  liable  to  the  effects  of  wet  and  cold, 
as  when  buried  under  ice  and  snow  through  a  succes- 
sion of  seasons :  but  why  is  it,  that  when  employed 


313 

in  sepulchral  monuments,  and  placed  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  they  experience  no  material  change.  1 
could  easily  refer  to  a  number  of  church  yards  in  the 
northern  states,  where  monumental  tables  of  these 
materials,  consecrated  to  the  dead,  have  lain  for  more 
than  a  hundred  winters,  buried  in  snow  and  ice  ;  yet 
every  letter  of  their  inscriptions  remains  unimpaired 
or  almost  as  legible  as  when  cut,  except  being  covered 
with  moss.* 

Surely  the  pious  act  of  rearing  these  humble  monu- 
ments, and  sculpturing  them  with  pathetick  strains,  in 
prose  and  verse,  to  portray  and  perpetuate  the  amiable 
qualities  of  our  departed  ancestors,  could  add  nothing 
to  the  durability  of  the  materials.  How  is  it  then, 
that  this  substance,  when  employed  for  useful  purposes 
is  rendered  so  much  more  capable  of  resisting  the 
operations  of  times  and  seasons,  than  when  lying  in 
its  original  bed,  where  it  is  supposed  to  be  fast  crumb- 
ling down  to  sand  and  dust,  to  form,  or  at  least  to  be- 
come tributary  to  the  soil  ? 

Certainly  there  must  have  been  some  deception  in 
this  business,  or  some  mistake  in  the  calculations  that 
have  been  made  on  that  subject,  and  which  I  shall 
notice  in  the  sequel;  for  if  letters  inscribed  upon  it 
can  remain  exposed  flat  upon  the  surface  of  the 

*  In  describing  the  monuments  in  a  church-yard  at  Dalmallj,  in 
Scotland,  it  is  said  that  "  the  most  modern  one  of  the  number,  on 
which  was  sculptured  a  crucifix,  was  judged  to  be  500  years  old ; 
yet,  though  of  steatite  or  lapis  ollaris,  was  free  from  decomposi- 
tion."—Travels  of  M.  Faujas  de  St.  Fond,  vol.  I.  page  289. 


ground  for  an  hundred  years  without  any  material 
change,  it  would  not  lose  one  inch  in  thickness  during 
the  period  of  a  thousand  years  :  consequently,  if  all 
the  rocks  upon  the  surface  of  this  globe  had  been 
composed  of  these  varieties  of  sand  stone,  equally 
exposed  and  liable  to  disintegration  from  the  com- 
mencement of  time,  or  for  six  thousand  years,  we 
should  not,  at  present,  have  ten  inches  of  soil  from 
this  source  upon  the  face  of  the  earth. 

Among  the  red  sand  stones,  there  is  a  species  of  a 
ferruginous  slaty  kind  that  is  peculiarly  subject  to 
disintegration  from  the  above  causes.  It  occurs  in  a 
number  of  places  in  these  United  States,  and  perhaps 
in  every  other  country  :  but  mostly  I  believe  in  what 
are  considered  coal  districts. 

It  occurs  in  Frederick  county  (Maryland)  on  the 
Monocasy,  near  Pipe  Creek,  having  a  declination  of 
about  40  or  45°.  It  is  also  abundant  in  New-Jersey 
about  New-Brunswick,  on  the  Haritan  river  and  else- 
where. It  likewise  occurs  in  Connecticut,  running 
in  a  N.  E.  direction  and  crosses  the  Connecticut  river 
between  Suffield  and  Windsor.  Also  below,  and  in 
the  town  and  city  of  Hartford.  Where  this  rock  is 
exposed  to  the  weather,  the  covering  or  upper  strata  is 
particularly  disposed  to  be  broken  up  in  small  rhorn- 
boidal,  or  quadrangular  laminae,  which  in  some  in- 
stances form  a  complete  covering  to,  and  screen  the 
rocks  below  from  the  further  operations  of  the  weather, 
by  their  being  below  the  limits  of  frost.  There  are 
some  other  kinds  of  the  schistic  rocks  which,  in  like 


S13 

cases,  present  similar  appearances,  but  which,  not 
being  of  very  great  importance  in  the  present  view,  I 
shall  not  take  into  further  consideration. 

2dly.  I  shall  proceed  to  examine  the  quartzose 
rock,  compact  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  primitive  sili- 
cious  slate,  horn  stone  slate  or  the  palaiopetre  of 
Saussure,  &c. 

These  substances,  it  is  well  known,  when  compactly 
or  perfectly  formed,  have  each  an  alluminous  or  sili- 
cious  cement,  which  gives  to  the  substance  such  a 
degree  of  elasticity  or  firmness  that,  if  they  do  absorb 
a  small  quantity  of  water  (and  small  indeed  it  must 
be)  they  are  capable  of  resisting  the  operations  of  cold 
and  frost.  Hence,  the  extent  of  disintegration  with 
rocks  of  this  description  is  very  limited.  This  con- 
clusion however  is  drawn  from  the  appearances  which 
they  generally  present  to  view.  That  is,  of  being 
angular  or  sharp  pointed,  and  extremely  craggy. 

Where  this  is  the  case,  it  is  highly  improbable  that 
they  can  have  suffered  any  material  loss  by  disintegra- 
tion :  for,  as  before  mentioned,  it  is  next  to  impossible 
that  this  can  take  place,  no  matter  what  may  be  the 
agent  employed,  for  the  purpose,  without  the  points 
and  angles  being  reduced  and  blunted,  thus  gradually 
progressing  to  a  rounded  form. 

3dly.  I  shall  consider  the  green-stone,  (or  diabase 
of  Brogniart)  the  porphyritic  rocks,  some  of  the 
amygdaloids,  &c. 

From  all  the  opportunities  which  I  have  had  of 
examining  the^e  tucks  in  place,  and  from  the  observa- 


216 

tions  that  have  been  made  by  others  on  their  structure 
and  general  character,  I  am  disposed  to  consider  them 
among  those  the  least  liable  to  decomposition  or  disin- 
tegration. 

The  principal  constituent  part  of  the  green- stone 
rock  is  hornblende.  This  substance  often  differs  in 
its  texture  as  well  as  in  colour :  but  in  general  it  may 
be  considered  impervious  to  water.  The  other  con- 
stituent part  is  commonly  felspar.  This  substance, 
as  I  have  before  mentioned,  is,  in  some  cases  when 
combined  with  hornblende,  subject  to  disintegration, 
which  gives  to  the  rocks  the  appearance  of  a  slow, 
but  progressive  decomposition ;  and  that  by  reason  of 
the  spicula  of  hornblende  projecting  a  little  beyond  the 
surface  of  the  rock,  thereby  causing  a  harsh  and 
rough  surface. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens,  in  digging  through  the 
earth  upon  a  ridge  of  this  rock,  that  we  come  upon  a 
superincumbent  mass,  or  stratum  of  a  pulverulent,  or 
apparently  decomposed  matter,  having  hornblende  for 
its  base  ;  and  similar  to  that  mentioned  of  gneiss  and 
some  other  stratified  rocks  :  but  where  this  rock  is 
presented  to  view  perfectly  formed  there  is  but  little 
reason  to  believe  that  it  has  suffered  any  material  di- 
minution, or  loss  of  substance  from  the  period  at 
which  it  was  first  formed  to  the  present  time  :  and 
this  opinion  is  founded  on  the  following  circumstances. 

Hornblende,  being  impervious  to  water,  cannot  be 
liable  to  decomposition  from  any  possible  change  of 
temperature,  that  of  ignition  excepted.  In  proof  of 


§18 

\ 

this,  the  spicula,  exposed  upon  the  surface,  preserve 
all  their  points  and  angles,  and  are  the  same  in  form 
as  those  which  are  found  in  the  body  of  the  rock,  when 
broken  open,  and  which  were  never  exposed  to  the 
operation  of  any  agent  whatever  since  its  formation. 
Besides,  they  not  only  preserve  their  form,  but  even 
their  fine  lustre  in  its  pristine  degree.  Nay,  more, 
when  perfectly  crystallized,  and  thus  exposed  in  the 
surface  of  the  rock,  the  terminal  angles  are  preserved 
as  entire  as  at  the  moment  when  formed. 

Another  proof  of  the  durability  of  the  hornblende 
rock,  or  of  hornblende  which  constitutes  almost  the  en- 
tire mass,  is,  that  in  sienite  it  manifests  not  the  smallest 
tendency  to  decomposition.  This  substance,  it  is  well 
known,  has  been  employed  in  every  department  of  civil 
architecture,  sculpture,  and  statuary,  from  the  earliest 
periods  of  time;  exposed  to  every  possible  change  of 
temperature,  and  the  operations  of  every  active  agent 
that  could  be  formed  by  a  natural  process,  among  the 
accumulated  ruins  of  ancient  cities,  yet  it  seems  to  have 
experienced  no  material  change. 

In  the  next  place,  the  greenstone,  or  amphibolic 
rocks  (for  they  are  not  always  green)  wherever  they 
are  presented  to  view  in  mass  or  in  place,  appear  to 
have  preserved  all  their  points  and  angles  almost  as 
entire  as  when  fresh  broken,  although  exposed  to  every 
extreme  of  heat  and  cold,  that  the  climate  in  which 
they  exist  may  have  experienced. 

With  this  species  of  rocks  may  also  be  associated 
those  of  the  amygdaloids,  mandiesteins,  or  variolites, 

29 


S19 

&c.  the  basis  of  which  is  a  hornblende  porphyry,  or 
porphyritic  hornblende.  Of  these  the  South  Mountains 
(or  blue  ridge)  abounds  in  Virginia,  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, and,  perhaps,  throughout  the  whole  extent  of 
its  range.  The  mamillary  masses  which  they  contain, 
are  either  quartz,  felspar,  or  epidote,  and  in  some  in- 
stances other  substances.  These  I  have  examined,  in 
place,  on  different  parts  of  the  ridge,  in  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania,  with  scrupulous  attention;  and  I  have 
no  reason  to  believe  that  they  have  suffered  any  more 
by  decomposition,  or  that  they  are  more  liable  to  it, 
than  any  of  the  other  rocks,  in  which  hornblende  is  the 
predominant  substance.  This  opinion  is  founded  on 
the  following  facts  which  are  observable  in  almost 
every  instance  where  these  rocks  are  presented  to  view. 

The  little  irregular  and  isolated  masses  of  quartz 
and  epidote,  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  these 
rocks,  seem  to  pervade  the  whole  body  of  their  sub- 
stance, and  every  surface  that  is  exposed  to  view,  ap- 
pears studded  with  them;  some  of  which  project  an 
eighth,  and  some  a  quarter  of  an  inch  above  the  sub- 
stance in  which  they  are  enclosed. 

These  pebbles  of  epidote  and  quartz,  not  being  liable 
to  decomposition  by  exposure,  have  retained  nearly 
their  primitive  form,  whilst  the  basis  of  the  rock  has 
experienced,  in  the  course  of  time,  a  slight  diminution, 
which  gives  to  the  pebbles  the  projection  which  I  have 
mentioned.  But  that  the  rock  has  experienced  no  fur- 
ther decomposition,  is  obvious  from  there  being  few  or 


HO  appearances  of  cavities  from  which  these  glohular 
masses  have  fallen,  from  the  want  of  support. 

Again,  there  are  no  appearances  of  these  pebbles  at 
the  bottom  or  base  of  these  rocks,  at  which  they  must 
have  fallen,  nor  in  their  fissures,  from  whence  they 
could  not  be  removed  by  either  winds  or  rain.  More- 
over, I  could  find  no  signs  of  them  in  the  little  streams 
that  glided  slowly  round  the  fragments  that  had  fallen 
from  the  rocks  above. 

But  the  most  convincing  proof  that  these  rocks  are 
not  in  a  progressive  state  of  decomposition,  except  in  a 
very  slight  degree,  is,  that  notwithstanding  all  the 
changes  of  temperature  to  which  they  have  been  ex- 
posed for  ages,  they  retain  all  their  points  and  angles, 
and  every  feature  of  a  rude  and  craggy  aspect,  such, 
doubtless  as  nature  first  impressed  upon  them. 

4thly.  The  real  porphyry  also  occurs  upon  this 
mountain,  and  some  other  rocks,  which  it  may  not  be 
uninteresting  to  notice  in  this  view. 

A  very  fine  and  beautiful  porphyry  occurs  at  Nichol- 
son's Gap,  in  Pennsylvania,  about  half  way  across  the 
mountain,  and  immediately  on  the  road.  It  is  of  a  pale 
red,  brown,  and  purple  colour,  handsomely  spotted 
with  crystals  of  felspar. 

This  beautiful  species  of  rock,  in  this,  and  I  believe 
all  other  places,  discovers  but  little,  if  any  signs  of  de- 
composition. All  the  points  and  angles  appear  as 
sharp  and  entire  as  when  first  broken,  although  ex- 
posed in  their  present  situation  ever  since  they  were 
formed.  Nay,  if  we  consider  the  firm  and  compact 


structure  of  this  kind  of  rock,  the  nature  of  its  mate- 
rials, and  the  exquisite  polish  of  which  it  is  suscepti- 
ble, we  shall  not  be  surprised  that  sculptured  speci- 
inens  of  it  have  been  preserved  entire,  amid  the  ruins 
of  ancient  cities,  for  three  thousand  years  ;  nor  hesitate 
to  admit,  that  if  there  be  a  substance  in  nature,  capable 
of  resisting  the  all-powerful  influence  of  time,  it  is  that 
of  porphyry.* 

Among  the  variety  of  other  kinds  of  rocks  that  com- 
pose this  ridge  of  mountains,  and  which  have  in  like 
manner  withstood  the  changes  of  seasons  and  the  in* 
tensity  of  frost,  is  one  that  is  highly  interesting  in  this, 
as  well  as  a  geological  point  of  view.  It  is  a  species 
of  sandstone  with  an  argillaceous  cement,  occasionally 
striped  and  handsomely  variegated  with  the  oxid  of 
iron.  It  has  been  remarked,  that  it  occurs  opposite  to, 
or  about  eight  or  nine  miles  east  of  Hagerstown,  Mary- 
land, t  There  is  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  it 
prevails  at  nearly  the  same  elevation  to  a  great  extent. 
I  have  found  that  the  top  of  the  Sugar  Loaf,  a  conical, 
high,  and  isolated  mountain  in  Frederick  county,  Ma- 
ryland, about  seven  miles  east  of  the  South  Mountain, 
is  composed  of  this  kind  of  sandstone.  I  also  find  it 
upon  the  highest  points,  only,  of  the  same  ridge  in 
Pennsylvania ;  so  that  in  every  instance  it  appears  at 

*  In  describing  some  of  the  ruins  of  Egypt,  Lord  Valentia  ob- 
serve-, ;<  near  it  was  a  Marahout,  the  dome  of  which  was  supported 
by  four  jasper  columns,  t'-e  polish  of  which  was  as  perfect  as  on  the 
daij  they  were  finished."— Vz\*r\t.  Trav.  Vol.  III. 

t  Cleaveland's  Mineralogy,  p.  624. 


the  same  elevation,  preserving  a  horizontal  line,  and 
capping  all  the  highest  points  of  the  ridge.     The  same 
kind  of  sandstone,  it  is  believed,  occurs  again  at  the 
same  elevation  on  the  Laurel  Hills:  and  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  the  sandstone  mentioned  by  Mr. 
Cornelius,*  as  being  found  on  the  tops  of  the  Cumber- 
land, Lookout,  and  Rackoon  mountains,  (Tennessee,) 
is  of  the  same  kind,  and  at  a  corresponding  elevation. 
Whether  so  or  not,  it  is  at  least  an  interesting  geolo- 
gical  fact,    and  worthy   of  attention.     These   rocks, 
wherever  they  occur  upon  the  South  Mountain,  do  not 
appear,  at  a  distance,  to  possess  any  thing  novel  or 
strikingly  interesting ;  but  when  approached,  or  viewed 
from  their  base,  they  present  an  awful  scene  of  confu- 
sion, disorder,  and  ruins.  The  masses,  which  are  of  al- 
most every  dimension,  from  a  cubic  foot  to  that  of  some 
hundred  tons  weight,  lie  piled  upon  each  other  to  a 
great  height,  and  in  every  possible  direction  or  posi- 
tion that  can  add  sublimity  and  horrour  to  the  view. 
Some  of  them  are  standing  upright ;   others  of  great 
length  are  poised  upon  a  single  point  of  a  rock,    and 
seem  ready,  by  a  small  force,  to  be  thrown  down  ;  yet 
the  united  efforts  of  many  hands  have  not  been  able  to 
displace  them. 

The  circumstance  which  attaches  to  these  rocks  the 
greatest  degree  of  importance  in  the  present  case,  is 
that,  notwithstanding  they  are  of  sandstone,  exposed 
to  the  bleak  winds  of  the  north,  and  the  combined 

*  American  Journal  of  Science. 


£33 

forces  of  frost  and  snow,  they  discover  few  or  no  signs 
of  disintegration.  I  have  examined  them  with  particu- 
lar attention,  and  neither  in  their  crevices,  fissures,  nor 
cavities,  could  I  find  satisfactory  proofs  of  disintegra- 
tion :  mot  even  in  the  chasms  down  between  the  rocks, 
some  of  which  appeared  ten  feet  deep,  were  any  grains 
of  sand  to  be  seen  ;  on  the  contrary,  their  points  and 
angles  appear  almost  as  sharp  and  entire  as  if  recently 
broken  up  from  the  quarry. 

5thly.  Having  taken  a  cursory  view  of  some  of  the  pre- 
vailing; rocks  that  compose  the  crust  of  our  earth,  1  shall 
examine,  lastly,  the  several  species  that  are  considered 
as  most  abundant,  and  such  as  occupy  the  widest  and 
most  extensive  range  in  the  structure  of  this  globe,  viz. 
Granite,  gneiss,  sieuite,  and  limestone,  including  their 
several  modifications. 

These  likewise  are  believed  to  be  in  a  progressive 
state  of  decay,  and  being  most  prevalent,  must,  of 
course,  contribute  most  abundantly  to  the  soil  of  the 
surrounding  country.  Nay,  their  decomposition  is  con- 
sidered as  essential  to  the  superincumbent  soil,  beneath 
ivhich  they  lie.  This  part  of  tbe  subject  is  highly  im- 
portant, and  deserves  a  more  critical  examination  than 
is  consistent  with  my  present  views ;  I  shall  therefore 
pursue  the  course  at  first  pointed  out. 

In  the  first  place,  let  us  inquire  what  are  the  sub- 
stances that  compose  these  rocks?  Granite,  with  its  se- 
veral modifications,  is  composed  mostly  of  quartz, 
felspar,  hornblende,  and  mica  ;  the  three  first  of  which, 
when  perfectly  formed,  may  be  considered  as  nearly 


impervious  to  water.  The  latter  when  combined  with 
the  former  so  as  to  form  perfect  compact  granite,  and 
its  subdivisions,  is  therefore  impervious  to  water. 

Limestone,  with  most  of  its  modifications,  being  a 
homogeneous  substance,  is  likewise,  when  compactly 
and  perfectly  formed,  impervious  to  water.  Or,  if  it 
be  contended  that  either  of  those  rocks  is  slightly  sus- 
ceptible of  the  absorption  of  water,  the  cohesive  power 
of  its  structure  is  such,  that  the  most  intense  cold  or 
frost  does  not,  nor  cannot  promote  its  disintegration. 

Having  demonstrated,  I  think,  that  the  disintegra- 
tion of  rocks  in  general,  is  not  materially  promoted  by 
any  chemical  process,  arising  from  natural  causes,  and 
which  will  apply  in  a  particular  manner  to  those  of 
granite  and  limestone,  I  shall  proceed  to  inquire  whe- 
ther these  twTo  species  of  rocks  are  really  susceptible 
of  disintegration  from  any  natural  cause  and  to  what 
extent. 

In  assuming  this  ground,  I  do  not  mean  to  contend 
that  granite  has  not,  in  some  instances,  been  found  evi- 
dently impaired  in  its  structure,  and  apparently  in  a 
progressive  state  of  decomposition.  The  beryl  and 
apatite  are  both  found  near  Baltimore,  in  a  vein  of 
loose  granite,  running  through  gneiss,  and  which  is  ea- 
sily broken  up  and  crumbled  to  pieces ;  but  this  is  in 
consequence  of  its  imperfectly  formed  structure  :  the 
quartz  inclined  to  be  granular;  the  mica  in  broad 
pieces ;  the  felspar  in  large  crystals,  or  rhomboidal 
masses  ;  the  whole  unconnected  and  without  any  ce- 
ment. Through  this  the  water  has  penetrated,  and,  in 


time,  injured  its  structure.  Such  instances  occur  in 
many  places.  The  piuite  is  found  at  St.  Pardoux,  in 
France,  in  a  pulverulent  granite,  which  is  evidently 
injured  in  its  structure  by  some  of  the  causes  which  1 
have  mentioned  ;  but  this,  most  probably,  is  nothing 
more  than  a  vein,  exposed  in  the  great  mass  of  more 
perfectly  formed  granite;  and  of  this  and  the  lime- 
stone rocks  en  masse,  I  would  ask,  in  general  terms, 
where  are  the  instances  that  bear  the  unequivocal 
marks  of  a  progressive  decomposition? 

Dr.  Hutton  would  have  us  believe  that  the  moun- 
tains are  in  a  progressive  state  of  destruction,  whilst 
their  debris  are  carried  away  by  the  torrents  into  the 
ocean. 

Mr.  Klrwan  seems  also  to  be  of  the  opinion  that 
they  are  decomposing,  "  by  being  corroded  by  air  and 
moisture/'  and  hence  concludes,  that  their  summits 
were  once  much  higher  than  at  present.*  Yet  when 
combatting  Dr.  Hutton' s  theory,  he  endeavours  to 
prove  that  those  which  are  composed  of  granite  do  not 
decay, t  au(J  refers  to  the  remarks  of  Patrin,  on  the  in- 
destructibility of  granite,  for  support. 

Pallassau  makes  frequent  mention  of  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  rocks  of  the  Pyrennees,  which  are 
mostly  of  granite  and  limestone  ;  and  remarks  that 
they  are  constantly  yielding  their  materials,  for  the 
formation  and  extension  of  the  soil  in  the  valleys  be- 


*  Kirwan's  E&says,  p.  98. 
t  Ibid,  p.  436, 


225 

low :  yet  in  speaking  of  the  granite  through  which 
runs  the  Garrone,  he  says,  "  This  species  of  rock 
braves  the  injuries  of  time,  and  the  continual  action  of 
the  waters."* 

So  prevalent  is  the  opinion  of  the  degradation  of 
mountains,  that  some  attempts  have  been  made  to  as- 
certain the  period  of  time  requisite  to  accomplish  their 
total  destruction,  or  to  reduce  them  to  a  level  with 
their  adjacent  vallies. 

M.  Gensanne  has  found  by  observations,  which  he 
pretends  are  unequivocal,  that  the  height  of  the  Py- 
rennees  is  lessened,  by  a  gradual  disintegration,  or 
decomposition,  at  the  rate  of  ten  inches  in  a  century. 
Upon  this,  supposing  their  height  to  be  fifteen  hundred 
fathoms  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  he  calculates  the 
time  necessary  for  their  destruction,  admitting  the 
progress  to  be  perpetual,  to  be  that  of  a  million  of 
years.f 

Believing  it  unnecessary  to  notice  the  opinions  of 
any  other  authors,  who  are  in  favour  of  the  decompo- 
sition of  rocks,  I  will  observe  that  it  appears  some- 
what singular  that  Mr.  Kirwan  should  indulge  the 
belief,  when,  from  his  own  assertion,  the  Runic  rocks 
"have  withstood  decomposition  these  two  thousand 
years  as  their  characters  evince."} 

But  on  this  point,  I  can  see  but  little  necessity  for 
his  having  selected  the  Runic  rocks  as  an  instance  of 

*  Mineral  des  Pjrennees,  page  248.         f  Do.  87. 
\  Kirwan's  Essays,  page  436. 

30 


the  indistructibility  of  granite,  lime  stone,  and  some 
other  kinds.  There  are  many  instances  in  the  British 
dominions,  more  immediately  at  hand,  and  equally  as 
well,  if  not  better  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  a  critical 
examination,  removing  of  doubts,  and  of  deciding 
upon  the  fact,  or  of  placing  the  subject  in  such  alight 
as  no  longer  to  remain  a  theme  of  discussion.  Of 
these,  1  will  name  Stone  Henge,  and  other  Druidical 
monuments  which  have  withstood  the  operations  of 
time  through  a  period  amply  sufficient  to  have  deter- 
mined whether  or  not,  they  are  in  a  progressive  state 
of  disintegration,  or  decomposition. 

Whether  they  are  of  granite  or  not,  I  do  not  recol- 
lect, but  the  presumption  is,  that  the  circumstance  of 
these  enormous  masses  having  been  removed  from 
their  primitive  bed  and  erected  into  a  monument,  could 
not  lessen  the  tendency  to  decomposition  if  suscepti- 
ble of  it ;  therefore  they  are  suitable  objects  on  which 
to  fix  our  attention  and  to  regulate  our  opinions  on  the 
subject.  If  not,  however,  a  single  glance  at  the 
Giant's  Causeway  might  have  freed  his  mind,  and 
that  of  every  other  person,  from  all  doubts  on  this 
head,  and  left  the  matter  at  rest. 

There  are  monuments,  en  place,  erected  by  the 
author  of  nature,  and  which,  though  not  of  granite  or 
limestone,  have  resisted  the  combined  efforts  of  time 
unaltered  and  unchanged.  This  at  least  is  pre- 
sumed :  for  had  they  been  susceptible  of  the  opera- 
tions of  any  natural  agent,  or  of  those  which  are 
supposed  to  promote  the  decomposition  of  rocks, 


327 

there  is  not  a  basaltick  column  in  the  county  of  Antrim, 
or  any  where  else,  whose  surfaces  are  exposed  to  view, 
that  would  now  present  a  single  angle  entire.  Where- 
as, in  this  instance,  the  faces  and  angles  are  as  perfect 
and  as  susceptible  of  actual  measurement,  as  those  of 
any  crystal  to  which  the  Abbe  Hauy  has  ever  ap- 
plied his  goniometer,  though  they  have  withstood  the 
raging  conflicts  of  the  elements  through  a  period  of 
time,  not  to  be  ascertained  by  the  records  of  man,  but 
at  least  a  lapse  of  ages  frightful  and  appalling  to  the 
human  mind.* 

With  respect  to  the  opinions  and  remarks  of  Pallas- 
sau,  although  he  says  it  is  evident  that  the  Pyrennees, 
from  the  ocean  to  the  Mediterranean,  have  been  pro- 
digiously depressed  by  disintegration,  since  the  epoch 
of  their  formation.!  I  could  not  have  wished  for  bet- 
ter support,  or  stronger  proofs  of  the  stationary  condi- 
tion of  mountains,  or  rocks  in  general,  than  are  to  be 
found  in  his  writings. 

Had  he  written  expressly  with  the  view  of  confirm- 
ing the  opinions  of  Monnetfi  who  denies  the  universal 

*  Of  the  basaltick  columns  near  Glasgow,  (Scotland.)  it  is  said, 
"  Its  constituent  moleculse  are  so  intimately  united  to  each  other, 
that  time  and  the  severity  of  the  climate,  have  not  injured  in  the 
lea*t,  either  the  faces  of  the  prisms,  which  still  preserve  their 
hardness  and  colour,  or  the  entire  of  the  mass,  which  remains 
unaltered,  and  without  any  perceptible  appearance  of  decay.—* Fau- 
jas' Travels,  Vol.  I,  page  312. 

t  Mineral  des  Pyrennees,  page  121. 

\  Monnet's  Mineralogy,  page  Gi. 


S28 

degradation  of  mountains,  he  could  not  have  better 
established  the  fact,  and,  at  the  same  time,  set  aside  all 
the  calculations  of  Gensanne,  than  by  several  circum- 
stances related  in  his  excellent  and  interesting  work. 

For  instance,  in  describing  "the  innumerable  and 
enormous  rocks  of  granite,"  which  surround  the  mine- 
ral springs  at  Railliere,  on  the  Pyrennees,  he  observes, 
that  "the  destruction  of  these  masses  of  granite  would 
require  the  work  of  an  infinite  series  of  ages,  (siedesj 
if  we  judge  them  by  the  superb  obelisks  of  granite 
erected  in  Egypt,  more  than  three  thousand  years  ago ; 
monuments  which  at  this  day  embellish  the  city  of 
Rome,*  without  having  experienced  any  alteration."^ 

In  the  next  place,  in  speaking  of  the  city  of  Bag- 
neres,  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  valley  of  Campan, 
and  the  mineral  springs  of  that  name,  he  describes  se- 
veral inscriptions  discovered  about  the  springs,  as  re- 
ported by  Oienardj  and  which  are  considered  as 
proofs,  that  the  Romans  were  acquainted  with,  and  fre- 
quented those  baths  ;  and  that  by  them  the  inscrip- 
tions were  executed,  when  they  invaded  that  country. 

u  Among  these,  the  stone,"  says  Pallassau,  "  on 
which  the  following  inscription  is  engraved,  is  to  be 
seen,  at  this  time  at  Bagneres,  in  the  garden  wall  of 
M.  Duzer." 

*  One  of  these  monuments,  I  presume,  is  the  obelisk  transport- 
ed from  Egypt  to  Rome,  by^Caius  Csesar.  Its  height  was  a  hun- 
dred cubits,  or  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  its  diameter  eight  cu- 
bits, or  twelve  feet.— See  Sonini,  vol.  I,  page  127. 

t  Mineral  des  Pyrennees,  page  143- 


229 

A  G  H  o  N  I,  DEO. 

DEO  GHONI. 

LABVSIVS,  AVLINI. 

VSLM,  AVRINI. 

VSLM.* 

Besides  these,  a  number  of  others  were  found  of  a 
similar  kind  at  the  baths  de  Luchon,  or  Bagneres  de 
Luchon.  These  baths,  it  seems,  enjoyed  considerable 
celebrity,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  as  appears  by 
the  latin  inscriptions  which  have  been  discovered 
about  them.  After  the  country  was  freed  from  the  Ro- 
man yoke,  this  place  was  neglected,  and  by  the  falling 
of  rocks,  stones,  and  earth,  these  sources  of  health  and 
comfort  were  buried  beneath  them.  The  buildings 
about  them  were  likewise  neglected,  and  fell  to  ruins. 
In  more  modern  times,  however,  the  city  has  been  gra- 
dually rebuilt,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  inhabitants 
commenced  the  cutting  of  trenches  by  the  side  of  the 
ancient  baths,  with  a  view  to  discover  the  source  of 
the  water,  which,  at  that  time,  was  discharged  from 
among  the  rocks  in  small  streams. 

In  doing  this,  they  discovered  a  number  of  marble 
monuments,  or  votive  altars,  executed  in  the  Roman 
style,  and  with  exquisite  taste ;  and  on  which  were 
sculptured  a  variety  of  inscriptions  in  latin.  No  less 
than  twelve  of  these  inscriptions  are  given  by  Pallas- 
sau  in  his  work. 

Moreover,  at  the  Pene  d'Escot,  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable places  in  the  Pyrennees,  being  a  high  and 

*  Mineral  des  Pyrennees,  page  192. 


230  ; 

very  steep  mountain,  over  which  it  is  said  that  Julius 
Caesar  cut  a  road  through  an  opening  or  pass,  which 
the  Romans  called  Summum  Pyrenaeum,  to  facilitate 
the  communication  with  Spain,  the  following  inscrip- 
tion has  been  discovered,  and  reported  by  M.  Le  Hoi, 
Engineer  des  Ports,  et  Arsenaux  de  la  Marine. 

I.  IAL.  IERNUS  CER 

Q  VIR  BIS  HANC 

RIAM  RESTITVIT 
LAM  IILMV 

S.  AMICUS          C. 

This  inscription  is  represented  as  being  a  little  ef- 
faced by  time  ;  not  however  so  much,  but  that  M.  Le 
Roi  obtained  from  it  a  correct  copy,  and  which  Pallas- 
sau  has  published  as  copied.* 

From  these  facts,  what  is  the  inference  to  be  drawn? 
What  man  in  his  sober  senses  will,  on  mature  reflec- 
tion, pretend  that  the  Pyrennees,  or  any  other  chain 
of  mountains,  are  experiencing  a  degradation  of  ten 
inches,  in  a  hundred  years,  or  one  twentieth  part  of  it, 
by  the  disintegration  of  the  rocks,  while  the  simple 
characters  of  which  those  inscriptions  are  composed, 
and  superficially  cut  in  limestone,  have  remained  ex- 
posed to  the  operations  of  all  the  agents  to  which  rocks 
in  general  are  liable,  for  more  than  eighteen  hundred 
years,  (if  executed  by  the  Romans  of  which  there  can 
be  no  doubt)  without  being  effaced  or  materially  injur- 
ed? Perhaps  it  will  be  urged,  that  they  have  remain- 

*  Mineral  des  Pyrennees,  page  80. 


231 

ed  a  great  portion  of  this  time  buried  beneath  rubbish, 
or  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  therefore  not  subject  to 
the  operation  of  the  agents,  which  are  supposed  to  pro- 
mote the  decomposition  of  rocks.  If  this  plea  be  ad- 
mitted, it  establishes,  incontestibly,  a  very  important 
fact,  viz  :  that  the  decomposition  of  rocks  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  is  not  promoted  by  any  chemical 
agent,  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  or 
other  matter  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Otherwise, 
in  all  probability,  those  inscriptions  must  have  been 
totally  effaced. 

In  the  present  instance,  however,  it  is  not  necessary, 
to  confine  our  views  to  the  inscriptions  discovered  at 
the  Bagneres  de  Luchon.  Let  us  examine  that  which 
was  found  at  La  Pene  d'Escot,  as  reported  by  M.  le 
Roi,  Engineer,  &c. 

This  inscription  is  represented  as  being  sculptured 
on  a  lime  stone  rock,  of  which  kind  this  part  of  the 
mountain  is  composed ;  and  by  the  side  of  the  road 
leading  into  Spain,  through  the  forest  du  Pact,  and 
which  road  is  said  to  have  been  cut  by  Julias  Cesar : 
since  whose  time,  (being  more  than  18  hundred  years,) 
this  inscription  has  remained  exposed  to  all  the  vicis- 
situdes of  time  and  temperature,  without  a  single  letter 
being  effaced,  as  is  implied  by  the  language  of  the 
author,  who  says,  ^  les  restes  frun  inscription  en  par- 
tie  effacee  par  le  terns."*  From  these  circumstances 
then,  the  inference  is  very  obvious  and  plain,  that  in- 

*  Mineral  des  Pyrennees,  page  80. 


233 

stead  of  millions  of  years  being  required  to  complete 
the  destruction  of  these  mountains,  according  to  the 
calculation  of  Gensanne,  or  to  level  them  with  the  val- 
lies,  it  would  require  as  many  million  of  millions,  up- 
on a  moderate  calculation. 

The  few  preceding  remarks  are  intended  to  apply, 
more  immediately,  to  the  opinions  advanced  by  Pallas- 
sau  and  Gensanne,  relative  to  the  disintegration  of 
rocks,  and  gradual  depression  of  the  Pyrennees,  but 
which,  however,  I  considered  equally  applicable  to 
every  other  chain  of  mountains,  and  the  rocks  of  which 
they  are  composed,  that  can  be  found  upon  the  surface 
of  the  globe. 

Where  I  to  assume  the  instances  in  which  rocks  of 
various  kinds,  and  such  as  are  most  prevalent,  have 
been  employed  in  the  arts,  from  the  most  remote  pe- 
riods of  time,  to  prove  the  non- decomposition  of  those 
materials,  and  which,  by  the  by,  having  experienced 
no  change  in  composition  or  structure,  by  being  remov- 
ed from  their  primitive  situation,  or  from  having  re- 
ceived new  forms  by  the  hand  of  the  artist,  are  cases  as 
decidedly  in  point,  and  are  as  suitable  criteria,  on  which 
to  form  an  opinion  on  this  subject,  as  if  they  still  lay 
exposed  on  the  mountains. — Were  I  permitted  to  re- 
sort to  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities,  for  monuments  and 
monumental  inscriptions,  that  have  for  ages  resisted 
the  agents  of  decomposition,  and  with  which  to  com- 
bat the  advocates  for  the  disintegration  of  rocks,  and 
the  degradation  of  mountains,  proofs  the  most  palpable 
and  convincing  could  be  adduced  to  establish  the  facl, 


beyond  all  question,  that  such  aii  opinion  is  erroneous, 
or  almost  without  foundation. 

The  specimens  of  Roman  sculpture,  and  the  inscrip- 
tions discovered  at  Bagneres  de  Luchon  and  la  Pene 
d'Escot,  are  appropriate  and  seasonable,  and  ought  to 
have  convinced  Pallassau  and  Gensanne  of  the  indes- 
tructibility of  those  materials,  and  of  the  errour  of  their 
opinions,  respecting  the  gradual  depression  of  the 
Pyrennees. 

If,  however,  doubts  should  be  entertained  of  the  age 
of  these  specimens,  or  the  authenticity  of  the  facts,  we 
need  only  examine  the  cities  of  Greece  and  that  of  Rome, 
to  find  instances  enough  of  the  ruins  of  theatres,  trium- 
phal-arches, temples,  and  palaces,  the  existence  and 
age  of  which,  being  registered  upon  the  faithful  pages 
of  authentick  history,  are  enough  to  set  doubts  at  defi- 
ance, and  convince  the  most  sceptical,  that  the  mate- 
rials of  which  they  are  composed,  are  proof  against  the 
insidious  agents  of  time,  though  exposed  to  the  full 
force  of  their  operation  for  thousands  of  years. 

Among  these  may  be  seen  the  remains  of  massy 
walls,  mutilated  columns,  and  broken  entablatures,  on 
the  friezes  of  which  are  sculptured  inscriptions,  and  bas 
reliefs  of  exquisite  workmanship  ;  yet  as  entire,  or  al- 
most as  free  from  marks  of  decomposition,  as  when 
turned  from  the  hands  of  the  artist ;  though  they  have 
lain  mingled  with  rubbish,  to  be  acted  on  by  all  the 
natural  agents  of  destruction,  for  nearly  or  quite  three 

thousand  years. 

31 


Amongst  these  ruins,  which  bespeak  the  pomp  and 
luxury  of  ancient  kings,  we  also  find  the  same  mate- 
rials, which  compose  the  rocks  and  mountains,  that 
are  said  to  be  undergoing  the  gradual  process  of  disin- 
tegration and  decay.  Such  as  granite,  sienite,  porphy- 
ry, marble,  verd-antique,  serpentine,  &c. 

Antique  specimens  of  these  materials  are  sometimes 
exhibited  to  our  view,  which  fully  demonstrate,  that 
they  have  withstood  the  injuries  of  time  for  ages,  and 
are  yet  unimpaired. 

It  is  not  long  since  the  busts  of  Niobe  and  Socrates, 
executed  in  red  antique  porphyry,  and  obtained  from  ' 
the  ruins  of  Pompeii  or  Herculaneum,  were  offered  to 
view  in  this  city.  These  specimens  of  art,  which  dis- 
covered all  the  freedom  and  beauty  of  outline,  that 
characterise  the  Roman  and  Grecian  statuary,  had  ex- 
perienced no  other  injury,  than  a  kind  of  etching  upon 
the  surface;  although,  in  all  probability,  fifteen  or 
eighteen  hundred  years  had  elapsed,  since  they  were 
executed ,  for  it  is  well  known,  that  for  several  hundred 
years,  the  art  of  sculpturing  in  porphyry  was  totally 
lost  or  unknown. 

Specimens  of  this  description,  abound  in  almost  all 
the  museums  and  cabinets  of  Europe,  and  are  of 
themselves,  sufficient  to  prove  the  indestructibility  of 
rocks,  or  materials  of  this  kind,  though  exposed  for 
ever  so  long  a  period  to  the  injuries  of  time. 

Still,  if  stronger  evidence  should  be  required,  there 
are  innumerable  examples  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  parti- 
cularly in  the  ancient  cities  of  Egypt ;  the  imperishable 


23d 

rains  of  which,  that  have  lain  for  move  than  twenty 
centuries  would,  alone,  require  volumes  to  enumerate. 

Some  of  the  very  first  objects  that  meet  the  eye,  as 
we  approach  this  celebrated  country,  attest  the  truth  of 
what  I  have  asserted.  Dolomieu  says  that  the  rocks, 
which  stood  at  the  entrance  of  the  port  of  Alexandria, 
have  withstood  the  bufferings  of  the  ocean,  these  two 
thousand  years,  and  still  retain,  unaltered,  their  ancient 
form  and  integrity. 

The  obelisk  of  Cleopatra,  and  Pompey's  pillar, 
(the  shaft  of  which  is  granite ;  its  base  and  capital  of 
lime  stone,  or  marble,)  those  objects  of  wonder  and  as- 
tonishment, exhibit  few  or  no  marks  of  decomposition^ 
and  much  less,  of  disintegration,  although  they  have 
been  standing  thousands  of  years.* 

*  With  persons  who  may  have  read  the  interesting  travels  of  Dr; 
Clarke»and  particularly  his  remarks  on  the  Alexandrian  obelisks,  or 
Cleopatra's  Needles ;  and  also  on  the  decomposition  of  granite, 
some  doubts  may  still  be  entertained  of  the  correctness  of  my 
views  on  the  durability  of  granite,  or,  of  its  liability  to  disintegra- 
tion, or  decomposition. 

Of  Cleopatra's  Needles  he  observes  "  They  are  covered  with 
hieroglyphics,  cut  to  the  depth  of  two  inches  into  the  stone,  which 
consists  of  red  granite  ;  but,  owing  to  a  partial  decomposition  of 
the  felspar,  its  red  colour  has  faded  toward  the  surface.  A  simi- 
lar decomposition  has  frequently  hastened  the  decay  of  other  an- 
cient monuments ;  and  it  offers  proof  of  a  fact  worthy  the  notice 
of  persons  employed  in  national  architecture;  namely,  that  granite 
is  less  calculated  for  works  of  duration,  than  pure  homogenous 
marble,  or  common  limestone.  The  action  of  the  atmosphere  con- 
duces to  the  hardness  and  durability  of  the  two  latter;  but  it 


£36 

The  walls  of  Alexandria  « which  defended  its  in- 
dustry and  riches,  still  defend  its  ruins,"*  yet  the  stones 
of  which  they  are  constructed,  are  not  decomposed. 

never  fails  to  corrode  and  to  decompose  substances  where  felspar 
is  a  constituent.  Examples  may  be  adduced  of  marble,  after  con- 
tinual exposure  to  air  and  moisture  during  two  thousand  years, 
still  retaining  the  original  polish  upon  its  surface  unaltered  ;  but 
granite,  under  similar  circumstances,  has  not  only  undergone 
alterations,  but,  in  certain  cases,  has  crumbled  and  fallen  into  the 
form  of  gravel." — Vol.  III.  page  170. 

In  my  remarks  on  the  decomposition  of  granite,  I  have  expressly 
admitted  that,  in  certain  cases,  it  is  liable  to  disintegration,  so 
much  so  that,  in  time,  the  whole  mass  will  crumble  and  fall  into 
sand  and  gravel  5  and  of  such,  most  probably,  were  the  instances 
which  he  mentions  as  being  seen  among  "  the  ruins  of  Alexandria, 
Troas,  and  over  all  the  district  of  Troas  in  general." — Ibid. 

\  have  also  admitted  that,  (whether  in  granite  or  porphyry,)  if 
potash  forms  a  constituent  of  felspar,  as  it  does  in  some  instances, 
it  is  apt  to  promote  the  disintegration  and,  perhaps,  decomposition 
of  the  felspar.  But  the  far  greater  part  of  the  felspar  that  enters 
into  the  composition  of  granite,  porphyry,  &c.  is  not  of  this  des- 
cription, and  particularly  that  which  forms  a  constituent  part  of  the 
granite,  qf  which  Pompey's  pillar  and  the  obelisks  are  composed. 
Hence  we  are  led  to  infer,  that  the  slight  change  which  the  felspar, 
in  Cleopatra's  Needles,  had  undergone  in  so  many  ages,  (and 
slight  it  must  have  been  indeed,  since  only  its  red  colour  had 
faded,)  must  have  depended,  in  an  eminent  degree,  on  local  cir- 
cumstances. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  monuments  of  art  composed  of 
these  materials  and  placed  upon  the  borders,  or  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  ocean  or  a  sea,  arid  exposed  to  the  saline  vapours  that  are  al- 

*  Baron  de  Tott,  volume  II,  part  II,  page  36. 


£37 

The  twenty  beautiful  marble  columns  of  Grecian 
workmanship,  discovered  by  JViehbur  at  Bolbitine, 
no  traces  of  which  could  be  found  recorded  in  the  pages 
of  history,  and  of  which  no  traditionary  legend,  of  the 

most  constantly  floating  in  the  atmosphere,  are  more  liable  and  even 
more  subject  to  marks  of  decay  or  decomposition,  than  the  same 
substances  when  placed  in  situations  more  remote  from  the  sea. 
It  is,  doubtless,  from  this  circumstance,  that  the  parts  of  these 
monuments  which  are  exposed  to  the  air,  and  being  situated  not  far 
from  the  port  of  Alexandria  and  the  Mediterranean  sea,  have  ex- 
perienced some  change  at  their  surfaces,  which  indicates  a  slight 
degree  of  decomposition  ;  while  the  parts  not  exposed,  discover  no 
marks  of  the  kind. 

This  conclusion  is  warranted  by  the  remarks  of  Dr.  Clarke 
respecting  the  attempt  made  to  remove  and  transport  one  of  these 
obelisks  to  England  j  in  which  he  observes,  "  The  work  went  on 
rapidly ;  the  obelisk  was  turned,  and  its  lower  surface"  (which 
was  buried  in  the  sand  and  rubbish,)  was  found  to  be  in  a  high 
state  of  preservation." — Vol.  III.  page  170. 

This  conclusion  is,  moreover,  justified  by  another  circumstance, 
equally,  if  not  more  interesting  in  its  character,  though  of  a  like 
nature.  It  is  the  obelisk  of  Heliopolis,  or  pillar  of  On,  supposed  to 
be  alluded  to  in  Genesis,  chapter  xii.  8th,  and  xiii.  4th  verses  ;  and 
of  which  Dr.  Clarke,  as  well  as  Norden  and  SUaw,  has  given  a 
description. 

"  This  superb  monument,"  he  says,  "  is  the  only  great  work  of 
antiquity  now  remaining  in  all  the  land  of  Goshen  ;  standing  on  the 
spot  where  the  Hebrews  had  their  first  settlement."  Its  height,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Clarke,  is  between  sixty  and  seventy  feet :  agreea- 
bly to  Dr.  Shaw,  sixty-four  feet.  Its  diameter,  at  its  base,  six  feet ; 
and  composed  of  one  entire  mass  of  granite.  And  farther  it  is  ob- 
served, «  From  the  coarseness  of  the  sculpture,  as  well  as  the  his- 


S38 

half  civilized  Turks  or  Egyptians,  could  give  any  ac- 
count, are  described  as  possessing  all  their  beauty  of 
proportion  and  symmetry,  as  well  as  exquisite  style  of 
execution,  though  exposed  to  aggravated  scenes  of  vio- 
lence, and  the  destructive  agents  of  time. 

tory  of  the  city  to  which  it  belonged,  there  is  reason  to  believe  it 
the  oldest  monument  of  the  kind  in  Egypt."* 

Now  although  this  monument  is,  at  present,  situated  at  a  consi- 
derable distance  from  the  Mediterranean  ;  standing  at  a  small  dis- 
tance north  east  of  Cairo,  and  above  the  head  of  the  Delta  ;  it  is 
highly  probable,  that  for  many  centuries,  it  was  as  near  the  borders 
of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  as   Cleopatra's  Needles  are  at  present ; 
consequently  we  might  expect  to  find  some  change  upon  its  surface, 
as  well  as  upon  that  of  the  latter,  and  from  the  same  cause.    More- 
over, if  we  add  to  this,  the  amazing  length  of  time,  during  which  it  has 
stood,  ever  exposed  to  the  changes  of  times  and  seasons,  we  might 
reasonably  expect,  if  granite  be  susceptible  of  decomposition,  that 
we  should  find  it  literally  mouldering  and  falling  into  dust.     In- 
stead of  which  it  only  discovers   marks  of  decomposition  in  the 
sides  most  exposed  to  the  Etesean  winds,  that,  for  nearly   half  the 
year,  sweep  over  the  Mediterranean  sea  ;  and  to  which  this  monu- 
ment, as  well  as  Cleopatra's  Needles,  is  constantly  exposed, 

Dr.  Clarke  says  "Each  of  its  four  sides  exhibits  the  same  cha- 
racters, and  in  the  same  order.  Those  which  face  the  south  have 
been  the  least  affected  by  the  decomposition  of  the  substance  in 
which  they  are  hewn  ;  and  it  is  from  the  southern  side  that  the 
author's  design  is  taken."! 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  state  of  this  interesting  monu- 
ment, when  examined  by  Dr.  Clarke  ;  it  seems  that  Dr.  Shaw,  who 
saw  and  made  an  accurate  drawing  of  it  about  eighty  years  before, 
gives  a  different  account  of  the  state  of  it.  He  says  u  The  obe- 

*  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  Ill,  page  68.         |  Do-  vol.  Ill,  page  69. 


S3Q 

As  we  advance  upwards  on  the  borders  of  the  Nile, 
frequent  instances  occur,  in  which  models  of  Egyptian 
taste  and  Grecian  excellence,  wrought  in  granite, 
porphyry,  and  marble,  appear  to  be  struggling  into 

lisks,  which  I  have  mentioned  at  Alexandria  and  Heliopolis,  have 
been  described  hy  various  authors.  'The  hierogliphicks  upon  the 
latter,  (which  are  the  same  on  all  sides)  are  exceedingly  fair  and 
legible;  and  indeed  the  whole  pillar  is  as  entire  and  beautiful,  as  if 
it  were  newly  finished.  But  the  Alexandrian  obelisk,  lying  nearer 
the  sea,  and  in  a  moister  situation,  hath  suffered  very  much ;  espe- 
cially upon  that  side,  ithichfaceth  the  north  ward,"* 

It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  the  Alexandrian  Obelisks, 
from  their  proximity  to  the  sea,  and  from  the  circumstance  of  their 
having  been  long  prostrate  upon  the  earth  and  among  rubbish,  may 
discover  some  signs  of  decomposition,  and  from  this  circumstance, 
most  probably,  Dr.  Clarke  has  drawn  the  conclusion,  that  all  gra- 
nite, or  the  felspar  which  forms  a  constituent  of  granite,  is  liable 
to  decomposition.  This  inference,  however,  is  doubtful,  as  will 
appear  by  a  careful  and  more  extensive  examination  of  the 
subject. 

The  obelisks  of  Cleopatra,  and  Pompey's  pillar,  are  composed 
of  what  is  denominated  Egyptian  granite  :  (the  gr.'inites  durus  ru- 
bescens  of  Linneus)  of  this  kind,  most  of  the  granitical  monuments, 
as  well  as  other  e(!ifices:in  c'vi!  architecture,  in  Egypt,  are  compos- 
ed, and  were  obtained  principally  from  the  same  quarries,  or 
range  of  mountains. 

Now  although  the  Alexandrian  obelisks  exhibit  some  signs  of 
decomposition,  the  pillar  of  On,  or  the  obelisk  of  Heliopolis, 
which  in  all  probability  is  of  much  greater  antiquity,  is  still  less  so. 
The  splendid  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Bahbeit,  in  Egypt,  and  which 
are  described  as  being  composed  of  three  kinds  of  granite,  discover 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  page  412, 


240 

birth,  from  hillocks  of  sand  and  ruins,  and  seem 
to  say  to  the  gazing  traveller,  save  us  from  this  womb 
of  oblivion,  and  we  shall  survive  the  wreck  of  time  ! 
With  such  examples,  and  with  half  ruined  temples, 
the  cities  of  Bubastis,  Oxyrynchus,  Memphis,  Luxor. 
Tentyrse,  Thebes,  and  many  others  are  tilled ;  the  ma- 
no  signs  of  decomposition,  although  the  date  of  its  construction,  or 
the  period  of  its  execution  is  unknown.  All  the  hieroglyphicks  ap- 
pear in  the  highest  state  of  preservation,  and  "  nothing  could  be 
more  admirably  executed  than  the  bas  relievo  of  this  part  of  the 
temple,  which  probably  formed  the  front  of  the  wings ;  the  polish 
remained  perfect  on  the  faces."*  The  three  massive  columns  of 
granite  with  their  capitals  and  entablatures,,  discovered  at  Alexan- 
dria, "  have  resisted  the  ravages  of  time,  and  of  the  stilt  more 
destructive  caprice  of  the  present  masters  of  the  country."t 

The  two  stupendous  obelisks,  described  by  Denon  as  standing 
at  the  entrance  of  Luxor,  and  which  are  of  the  same  kind,  or  rose 
coloured  granite,  are,  with  all  their  figures,  represented  as  entire 
and  perfect.  The  quarries,  likewise,  from  which  the  ancient 
Egyptians  obtained  the  granite,  for  those  and  other  stupendous 
works,  exhibit  traces  of  the  ancient  workmanship,  "  as  fresh  as  if 
they  had  been  left  but  the  day  before."! 

In  this  instance,  no  mention  is  made  of  the  marks  of  decompo- 
sition of  the  felspar.  Moreover,  the  beautiful  obelisk,  of  the  same 
granite,  and  which  was  removed  by  Caius  Csesar,  from  Egypt  to 
Rome,  remains  entire,  **  without  having  experienced  any  altera-' 
tion/'§  although  executed  more  than  three  thousand  years  ago. 

*  Lord  Valencia's  Travels,  Vol..  Ill,  page  436. 
f  Do.  do  do        do    461. 

*  Denon's  Travels,  Vol  III,  page  206- 

§  Pallassau,  Mineral  des  Pyrennees,  page  143- 


terials  of  which  have  resisted,  alike,  the  process  of  de- 
composition for  hundreds  of  centuries. 

Fragments,  and  entire  specimens  of  sculpture,  from 
the  ruins  of  Carthage,  are  exhibited  in  the  museums 
of  almost  every  civilized  country,  yet  notwithstanding 
their  exposure  for  two  or  three  thousand  years,  they 
betray  few  or  no  marks  of  the  corroding  agents  of  de- 
composition. 

If  we  examine  the  gloomy  recesses  of  the  Catacombs 
at  Necropolis,  we  find  their  walls,  of  granite,  or  lime- 
stone, sculptured  with  inscriptions  and  hieroglyphics 
which,  though  subject  to  the  nitrous,  or  ammoniacal 
exhalations,  arising  from  the  remains  of  the  dead,  or 
the  accumulated  filth  of  jackals,  and  other  animals, 
which,  as  well  as  man,  seek  safety  and  refuge  in  these 
silent  retreats,  have  remained  unhurt  by  the  operatioa 
of  any  natural  agent,  although  the  date  of  their  con- 
struction is  at  a  period  so  distant,  as  to  be  almost  as 
much  involved  in  obscurity,  as  the  births  and  names  of 
the  ghastly  tenants,  that  are  deposited  in  their  dreary 
mansions. 

On  such  facts  we  might  rest  the  final  decision ;  but 
our  views  of  the  subject  must  not  be  confined  to  a  sin- 
gle district,  however  numerous  and  favourable  the 
cases  may  be,  which  it  affords ;  since  a  difference  of 
climate  and  other  circumstances,  may  produce  very  dif- 
ferent results,  in  the  opinions  of  some,  even  on  the 
same  materials.  Let  us  cross  over  the  Mediterranean, 
and  examine  the  ruins  of  Telmcssus,  an  island  in  the 
gulf  of  Glaucus. 


Here  again  are  the  theatres  and  palaces,  falling  and 
mixing  in  promiscuous  ruin,  whilst  the  materials,  com- 
posed of  the  several  rocks  which  I  have  enumerated, 
have  resisted  the  scourge  of  the  elements,  almost  un- 
hurt or  unchanged  by  decomposition.  The  most  po- 
sitive and  interesting  proofs  however,  of  their  durabi- 
lity, are  to  be  seen  among  the  colossal  tombs  and 
mausoleums,  excavated  and  formed  in  the  solid  rocks, 
upon  the  almost  inaccessible  heights  of  what  may  be 
truly  and  emphatically  called  "  the  everlasting  hills,'? 
fronting  the  sea  or  port  of  Macri. 

Here,  while  the  eye  wanders  through  the  echoing 
recesses  of  these  vast  and  gloomy  chambers  of  death, 
the  mind  is  carried  back  through  a  frightful  lapse  of 
ages,  by  the  inscriptions  at  the  entrance,  which  mark 
the  period  of  their  duration,  their  use,  and  for  whom 
constructed. 

One  of  these,  it  seems,  was  prepared  or  built  for  the 
reception  of  Helen,  (the  grand  daughter  of  Diogenes,) 
her  son,  and  grand  daughter. 

As  Diogenes  was  born  four  hundred  years  before 
the  Christian  sera,  it  is  more  than  probable,  that  this 
stupendous  sepulchre  had  been  constructed,  more  than 
twenty-two  hundred  years.  Yet  every  letter  of  the  in- 
scription is  represented  as  entire.* 

Another  of  those  tombs  Dr.  Clarice  calculates,  from 
the  inscription,  to  have  been  constructed  twenty  four 
hundred  and  forty-one  years  ;  yet  not  a  letter  appears 
to  have  been  effaced,  except  in  some  few  instances, 

*  See  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  volume  II,    page  132. 


where,  in  all  probability,  it  was  occasioned  by  violence ; 
for  if  two  or  more  letters  were  actually  destroyed  by 
decomposition,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the 
whole  inscription  would  have  suffered  alike  :  but  it 
appears  that  this  is  not  the  case  ;  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  represented  as  having  few  or  no  marks  of  decom- 
position. The  columns  and  sculptured  ornaments 
which  adorn  their  fronts,  or  sides,  are  described  as 
possessing  a  peculiar  freshness. 

"  In  those  that  were  almost  plain,"  says  l)r.  Clarke, 
"  the  hewn  stone  was  as  smooth,  as  if  the  artist  had 
been  employed  upon  wood,  or  any  other  soft  substance. 
The  exterior  form  of  almost  every  one  of  them,  cannot, 
perhaps,  be  better  described,  than  by  comparing  them 
with  a  familiar  article  of  household  furniture,  to  which 
they  have  a  great  resemblance  ;  namely,  the  book-cases 
with  glass  doors,  seen  upon  bureaus,  surmounted  by 
ornamental  rail-work  over  the  front  and  sides."* 

Not  only  were  the  ornaments  and  inscriptions  free 
from  marks  of  decomposition,  but  the  grooves,  which 
were  cut  with  the  greatest  precision  in  the  stones  for 
the  reception  of  the  slabs,  that  constituted  the  doors, 
and  which  closed  the  entrances  into  those  sepulchres, 
were  almost  as  entire  as  when  first  executed. 

Leaving  this,  let  us  take  a  superficial  view  of  the 
ruins  of  some  of  the  cities  of  Palestine ;  such  as  Jeru- 
salem, Galilee,  and  Napolose. 

Here  again  we  find  the  ancient  ruins  of  Jewish  tem- 
ples and  other  works,  of  granite  and  lime  stone,  exc- 

*  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  If,  page  136. 


cnted  long  before  the  Christian  sera,  still  uninjured  by 
decomposition.  Here  also  we  find  the  tombs  of  the 
kings  of  Judah,  of  Joshua,  of  Zacharia,  of  Jehosaphat, 
of  Absalom,  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  of  the  "Virgin 
Mary,  and  the  Sepulchre,  (as  identified  by  Dr. 
Clarice,}  of  our  Lord  and  Master  ;  and  a  number  of 
others,  of  which  Dr.  Clarice  observes,  '»'  It  has  never 
yet  been  determined,  when  those  sepulchres  were 
hewn,  nor  by  what  people.  They  are  a  continuation 
of  one  vast  cemetery,  extending  along  the  base  of  all 
the  mountainous  elevations,  which  surround  Jerusalem 
upon  its  southern  and  eastern  sides  ;  and  their  appear- 
ance alone,  independently  of  every  other  considera- 
tion, denotes  the  former  existence  of  a  numerous,  flour- 
ishing, and  powerful  people."* 

These  monuments,  which  carry  us  back  to  the  ear- 
liest ages  of  time,  and  which  are  calculated  to  inspire 
the  beholder  with  an  awful  reverence,  have  survived 
the  attacks  and  vicissitudes  of  time,  entire  and  un- 
changed. Even  the  very  inscriptions  are  still  preserv- 
ed in  legible  characters,  and  mostly  free  from  marks 
of  decomposition.  Nay  more,  "These  are  monu- 
ments," says  Dr.  Clarice,  "  on  which  a  lapse  of  ages 
effect  no  change  :  they  have  defied,  and  will  defy,  the 
attacks  of  time  ;  and  continue  as  perfect  at  this  hour, 
as  they  were  in  the  first  moments  of  their  comple- 
tion."'f 

Independently  of  these,  there  is  still  to  be  seen  on 
the  plain  of  liephidim,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sinai, 

*  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  II,  page  321.     f  Do.  vol.  II,  page  281, 


245 

the  rock  which  Moses  smote  with  his  rod,  and  from 
which  flowed  springs  of  pure  water.* 

"Here/*  says  Dr.  Shaw,  ''we  still  see  that  extra- 
ordinary antiquity,  the  rock  of  Meribah,  which  hath 
continued  down  to  this  day,  without  the  least  injury, 
from  time  or  accidents. ?'f 

Returning  into  Africa,  we  find  upon  the  mountain? 
of  Ethiopia  and  Abyssinia,  the  habitations  of  Cush, 
the  grandson  of  Noah,  and  his  descendants,  chiselled 
out  of  the  solid  rocks,  in  the  sides  of  the  mountains, 
still  entire  and  unaltered  by  time  ;f  and  corresponding 
with  the  habitations  of  the  ancient  shepherds,  cut  in 
the  rocks  upon  the  mountains  of  Palestine. § 

As  another  instance  of  the  durability  of  rocks,  we 
find,  on  examining  the  quarries,  from  which  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  obtained  the  immense  masses  of  gra- 
nite and  marble,  for  the  building  of  cities  and  temples, 
the  marks  of  the  holes  that  were  drilled  in  the  rocks, 
and  into  which,  wedges  or  bolts  of  wood  or  iron  were 
driven,  as  at  this  day,  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  up 
the  mass ;  and  as  fresh  as  when  first  exposed  to  the 
light  of  day. 

"  All  those  of  the  neighbouring  rocks,"  says  M. 
Denou,  ."  whose  surfaces  are  level,  have  been  wrought 
in  the  same  manner ;  and  the  traces  of  the  ancient 

'   Kxodus,  17,  6.  t  Shaw's  Travels,  page  352. 

|  See  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  II,  page  12,  and  Salt's  Description 
of  Abyssinia,  in  Lord  Valentia's  Travels,  vol.  Ill,  page  250. 
6  See  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  II. 


workmanship  are  preserved  as  fresh,  as  if  they  had 
been  left  but  the  day  before.''* 

But  one  of  the  most  important  proofs  of  the  indes- 
tructibility of  those  materials,  and  of  their  capacity  to 
resist  the  united  efforts  of  the  agents  of  decomposition, 
are  those  situated  upon  the  plains  of  Geeza, — the  Pyra- 
mids of  Egypt. 

These  awfully  grand  and  stupendous  monuments, 
which  have  set  time  at  defiance,  whilst  they  frown  in- 
dignant upon  the  wrecks  of  ages,  seem  to  say  to  the 
astonished  spectator,  leave  us  alone  and  unhurt,  and 
we  will  survive  the  consummation  of  time,  and  enter 
afresh  upon  the  verge  of  eternity. 

In  order  to  place  the  subject  of  the  decomposition 
of  rocks,  and  particularly  those  last  enumerated,  in 
their  proper  light,  I  have,  in  this  hasty  and  imperfect 
sketch,  selected  cases  in  which  they  have  been  em- 
ployed in  civil  architecture,  sculpture  and  statuary, 
under  the  full  persuasion  that  in  this  state  or  situa- 
tion, they  are  equally  as  much  exposed  to  the  changes 
of  temperature  and  the  agents  of  decomposition,  as  if 
they  lay  upon  the  mountains,  or  under  the  soil ;  and 
hence,  from  the  present  shape  and  form  of  the  mate- 
rials, being  able  to  judge  of  their  primitive  form,  or 
such  as  when  delivered  from  the  hands  of  the  artist; 
and  knowing  the  date  of  their  execution  and  period 
of  past  duration,  we  are  enabled  to  determine,  with  a 
sufficient  degree  of  accuracy,  the  extent  of  the  injury 

*  Denon's  Travels,  vol.  Ill,  page  206. 


247 

which  they  have  sustained  by  decomposition,  disinte- 
gration, or  that  of  any  other  kind. 

From  the  view  then  which  I  have  taken,  and  the 
facts  which  I  have  stated,  (and  facts,  1  trust,  they 
mostly  are)  who  can  or  will  contend,  that  the  moun- 
tains of  our  earth  are  becoming  more  and  more  de- 
pressed by  the  disintegration  of  the  rocks  of  which 
they  are  composed  ?  Is  it  not  evident  that  if  the  cal- 
culations of  Gensanne  were  true,  viz.  that  the  .de- 
pression of  the  mountains,  by  the  disintegration  of  the 
rocks,  is  at  the  rate  of  ten  inches  in  a  hundred  years, 
one  of  the  great  plans  of  nature  would  have,  long 
since,  been  defeated  ?  For  is  it  not  evident  that  the 
towering  heights  of  Iraaus,  of  Taurus,  of  Libanus, 
of  Atlas,  of  the  .Alps,  of  the  Pyrennees,  of  the 
Peak  of  Teneriffe,  of  the  Andes,  and  many  others, 
were  intended  expressly  to  be  covered  with  eternal 
frost  and  snow,  for  the  specifick  purpose  of  modifying 
and  tempering  the  heated  atmosphere  in  those  burning 
regions  ?  If  so,  it  is  obvious  that,  from  a  loss  of  ten 
inches  in  a  hundred  years,  and  admitting  the  age  of 
the  world  to  be,  according  to  some,  twelve  thousand 
years,  the  height  of  the  mountains  would  be  between 
seven  and  eight  hundred  feet  less  than  at  first :  con- 
sequently in  many  places,  upon  their  heights,  not  a 
particle  of  snow  or  ice  would  now  be  seen.  Therefore 
these  countries  would  be  left,  to  be  almost  set  on  fire 
by  the  insupportable  heat  of  a  vertical  sun. 

Fortunately,  however,  it    is  not    so.     The   Great 
Author  of  Mature  intended  it  otherwise;  and  they 


are,  and  ever  have  been,  the  same  in  height,  in  all 
human  probability,  that  they  were  from  the  com- 
mencement of  time.  This  I  think  will  appear  from 
the  following  facts. 

1st.  These  heights,  I  believe,  are  at  an  elevation  so 
great  that  neither  animals  nor  vegetables  have  been 
known  to  exist  upon  them  ;  consequently  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  rocks  could  never  have  been  occasioned 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  latter. 

Sdly.  There  having  been  no  variation  of  tempera- 
ture, such  as  heat  and  dry,  or  wet  and  dry,  by  which 
the  particles  of  rocks  were  alternately  expanded  and 
contracted,  thereby  causing  them  to  fall  to  pieces ; 
no  disintegration  could  possibly  take  place  from  this 
cause. 

3dly,  and  lastly.  They  having  been  ever  clothed 
with  perennial  snow  and  ice,  ever  frozen  and  never 
thaived,  no  decomposition  or  disintegration  could  pos- 
sibly have  been  occasioned  from  this  cause.  There- 
fore they  must,  of  necessity,  have  remained,  as  was 
intended,  always  the  same  from  the  period  of  their 
ultimate  completion  to  the  present  day.* 


*  To  the  kind  attention  of  Dr.  William  Howard,  of  this  city, 
\yholately  ascended  Mount  Blanc,  I  am  indebted  for  a  fine  speci- 
men of  granite,  obtained  by  himself  from  the  rock  en  masse,  at 
the  hoary  summit  of  that  beacon  of  Aurora,  the  highest  point  in 
Europe. 

It  is  impossible  to  conceive  any  thing  better  calculated  to  con- 
firm tbe  opinion  which  I  have  advanced,  on  the  indestructibility  of 


In  relation  to  the  cases  which  I  have  mentioned  as 
existing  in  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  Africa — in  the 
island  of  Telmessus,  and  in  Palestine;  it  may  be 
said  that  they  are  mostly  situated  in  a  climate  where 
cold  and  frost,  the  most  powerful  agents  in  promoting 
the  disintegration  of  rocks,  are  wholly  inoperative : 
therefore  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  mate- 
rials of  such  a  kind  and  in  such  situations  may  have 
withstood  decomposition  for  an  almost  incredible 
length  of  time. 

In  reply  to  this,  I  will  observe  that  although  I  have 
restricted  my  views,  as  to  the  general  mass  of  evidence 
on  this  subject ;  yet  I  am  not  disposed  to  be  partial,  or 
to  shrink  from  an  examination  of  cases,  or  facts,  that 
may  occur  in  any  parallel  of  latitude  in  the  known 
world.  I  shall  therefore  assume  a  higher  latitude, 
where  intense  cold  alternates  with  heat  of  nearly  an 
equal  degree  of  intensity,  in  order  to  determine,  to  what 
extent  they  have  the  power  to  promote  the  disintegra- 
tion of  rocks. 

The  coast  of  Norway,  for  nearly  nine  hundred 
miles  in  length,  is  defended  by  an  impregnable  ram- 
rocks  in  similar  situations,  by  the  vicissitudes  of  temperature,  or  any 
other  natural  cause. 

This  specimen  of  granite  is  composed  of  a  beautiful  white  fel- 
spar, quartz,  and  hornblende  ;  each  of  which  substances  is  in  a 
perfect  state  of  integrity,  and  the  whole  mass  perfectly  free  from 
the  smallest  sign  of  decomposition,  or  disintegration;  although  from 
its  situation,  it  has  probably  been  gilded  by  the  first  tints  of  each 
diurnal  sun  for  thousands  of  years. 

33 


S50 

part  of  rocks,  against  which  the  whole  of  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean  from  the  pole  is  incessantly  lashing  its  waves 
with  inconceivable  force.  For  seven  months  or  more, 
these  rocks  are  covered  with  ice,  and  frozen,  perhaps,  to 
the  centre.  Now  there  is  no  other  way  of  resolving  this 
ice,  that  I  know  of,  but  by  the  operation  of  heat,  which 
commences  about  the  beginning  of  April,  or  at  the  ap- 
proaching summer  solstice,  during  which  they  are  left 
bare  and  exposed.  Yet  although  these  changes  have 
been  annually  repeated,  probably  for  thousands  of 
years,  they  discover  few  or  no  signs  of  decomposition. 
On  the  contrary,  they  are  as  free  from  it  as  that  of  a 
similar  range  which  protects  the  coast  of  Brazil,  in  the 
torrid  zone,  for  more  than  two  thousand  miles  in 
length.  This  we  are  enabled  \o  determine  by  these 
facts  alone,  in  which  there  is  no  deception;  that  is  they 
are  still  craggy,  angular  and  pointed. 

"  By  such  a  rampart  (says  Pont  Oppidan)  consist- 
ing of,  perhaps,  a  million,  or  more,  of  massy  stone 
pillars,  founded  in  the  very  depth  of  the  sea,  the 
chapiters  of  which  rise  only  a  few  fathoms  above  the 
surface,  all  Norway  is  defended  to  the  west,  equally 
against  the  enemy,  and  against  the  ocean." 

Mr.  Heriot,  in  describing  the  country  to  the  north  of 
the  river  St.  Lawrence,  says  that  no  country  can  pre- 
sent a  more  wild  aspect ;  that  it  is  composed  of  rocks, 
and  "  cannot  boast  ^of  an  acre  of  soil  capable  of 
yielding  any  useful  production."* 

*  Heriot's  Travels,  page  58. 


Mr.  McICenxie  represents  the  whole  coast  of  Labra- 
dor, and  the  country  east  of  the  lakes,  or  what  is 
called  East  Main,  as  little  else  than  an  immense  region 
of  rocks  and  fresh  water  lakes,  with  a  very  scanty 
portion  of  soil,  and  which  is  still  less  in  the  interiouj 
parts.* 

Of  the  French  river  he  says,  as  before  mentioned, 
"  There  is  hardly  a  foot  of  soil  to  be  seen  from  one 
end  of  the  French  river  to  the  other  ;  its  banks  con- 
sisting of  hills  of  entire  rocks."  (Page  37.) 

Mr.  Hearn  confirms  the  report  of  McKenzie  by 
saying,  that  neither  the  coast  of  Labrador  and  Hud- 
son's straits,  nor  the  east  coast  of  Hudson's  bay  have 
any  herbage  or  trees  upon  them.f 

Of  the  Stony  mountains  lat.  68°  14'  north,  he 
says,  l6  No  part  of  the  world  better  deserves  that 
name,  as  they  appeared  a  confused  heap  of  rocks 
and  stones  utterly  inaccessible  to  the  foot  of  man." 
Even  of  the  whole  of  those  regions  inhabited  by  the 
northern  Indians  he  says,  "The  land  throughout 
that  whole  tract  of  country  is  scarcely  any  thing  but 
one  solid  mass  of  rocks  and  stones,  and  in  most  parts 
very  hilly,  "f 

In  all  these  cases,  if  I  am  correct  in  my  views  of  the 
operations  of  the  agents  of  disintegration  and  decom- 
position of  rocks,  there  is  but  little  or  no  appearance 
of  a  decay  of  the  materials  with  such  exceptions 

*  McKenzie's  Travels,  page  427.         f  See  Hearn,  page  7. 
|  Hearn's  Journey,  page  327. 


however  as  I  have  already  admitted.  The  rocks  are 
every  where  represented  as  being  rude,  angular,  point^ 
ed  and  craggy,  and  often  terrifick  even  to  behold. 

If,  according  to  some,  the  soil  which  covers  the  far 
greater  portion  of  the  earth,  and  which  renders  it  the 
fit  habitation  of  man,  be  owing  to  the  gradual  disinte- 
gration of  rocks ;  why  is  it  that  this  portion  of  the 
globe,  which  probably  embraces  all  the  different  for- 
mations which  are  known  in  geology,  is  so  far  behind 
every  other  in  this  respect  ?  If  we  examine  the  ex- 
tremes of  temperature  which  prevail  in  those  lati- 
tudes, and  on  which  depends  almost  entirely  the  dis- 
integration of  thft  rocks,  we  shall  find  ample  reason  to 
believe  that  this  part  of  the  globe  would  have  been 
the  most  abundantly  fertilized  of  any  upon  earth. — 
Yet  it  is  destitute,  notwithstanding  its  being  for  more 
than  half  the  year  frozen,  as  it  were  to  the  centre ; 
and  during  the  other  half  or  portion,  it  experiences 
the  genial  influence  of  the  sun  to  a  degree  so  great,  as  to 
produce,  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  the  leafing,  the 
budding,  and  the  luxuriant  blooming  of  the  rose,  as 
well  as  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe :  still  these 
rocks  are  naked  and  destitute  of  soil ;  although  they 
have  lain  exposed  to  all  the  revolutions  of  time  pro- 
bably from  the  beginning  of  the  world. 

Such  being  the  facts,  who  will  persist  in  advocating 
the  opinion,  that  the  height  of  our  mountains  is  annual- 
ly and  gradually  decreasing,  to  be  ultimately  levelled 
with  the  vallies  5  or  pretend  that  the  soil  which  covers 


253 

the  face  of  the  earth  was  produced  by  the  disintegra- 
tion of  rocks  ? 

Such  an  opinion  appears  to  me  unfounded,  both  in 
natural,  as  well  as  moral  philosophy,  and  seems  to 
betray  a  want  of  attention  to  the  plans  of  Omnipotence, 
as  well  as  a  neglect  to  allow  Him,  whose  power  is  un- 
bounded,, and  whose  foresight  is  unerring,  that  degree 
of  intelligence,  homage,  and  credit,  for  his  wisdom  and 
providence,  which  might  reasonably  be  claimed,  if  not 
awarded,  by  any  one  of  our  citizens  :  for  who  could 
expect,  that  a  man  would  erect  the  frame  of  an  elegant 
mansion,  for  the  habitation  and  residence  of  his  son, 
and  compel  him  to  live  in  it  without  a  shadow  of  cover- 
ing, or  the  means  of  subsistence. 

The  decomposition  of  rocks  is  a  subject  that  has  en- 
gaged the  attention  of  many,  and  the  opinions  that  have 
been  offered  seem  mostly  to  agree,  that  the  process, 
though  depending  on  different  causes,  is  universal. 

It  would  seem,  however,  that  those  opinions  were 
calculated  to  favour  particular  views  ;  or,  that  they 
were  regulated  by  some  local  circumstances,  that  would 
perhaps  justify  such  a  belief.  Such,  no  doubt,  there 
are.  But  a  more  general  view  of  the  subject,  and  a 
more  critical  examination  of  facts,  which  are  offered  in 
abundance  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  will  not  fail 
to  satisfy  the  most  sceptical,  that  such  a  doctrine  can- 
not be  established,  nor  supported  by  reason  or  facts. 
This  conclusion  receives  additional  support  and  confir- 
mation, from  the  following  remarks  of  Dr.  Hu1ton} 
who,  though  one  of  the  most  strenuous  advocates  for 


254 

the  disintegration  of  rocks,  and  the  degradation  olj 
mountains,  has  very  unwisely,  or  in  an  unguarded 
manner,  advanced  an  opinion,  which,  if  not  a  refuta- 
tion, militates  very  much  against  one  of  the  fundamen- 
tal principles  of  his  own  doctrine. 

«We  have  mountains  in  this  country,"  says  Dr. 
Hutton,  "  and  those  not  made  of  more  durable  mate- 
rials, than  what  are  common  to  the  earth,  which  are 
not  sensibly  diminished  in  their  height  with  a  thousand 
years" 

"  The  proof  of  this  are  the  Roman  roads  made  over 
some  of  those  hills.*  I  have  seen  those  roads  as  dis- 
tinct as  if  only  made  a  few  years,  with  superficial  pits 
beside  them,  from  whence  had  been  dug  the  gravel, 
or  materials,  of  which  they  had  been  formed,  "f 

In  reply  to  this,  professor  Murray^  observes,  "If  in 
so  long  a  period,  the  disintegration  is  so  inconsidera- 
ble as  not  to  be  perceptible,  what  must  be  required  to 
level  those  mountains  with  the  gea  ?  Millions  of  years 
would  not  suffice." 

*  The  Abbe  Fortis  likewise  makes  mention  of  the  remains  of 
Roman  roads,  in  his  travels  in  Dalmatia.  One  in  particular  he  des- 
cribes, as  leading  from  Lika,  across  the  country  to  Salona,  and  which, 
near  Perussich,  is  quite  entire,  though,  probably,  of  much  grea- 
ter antiquity  than  those  mentioned  by  Dr.  Button.— Abbe  Fortis* 
Travels,  page  524. 

f  Theory  of  the  Earth,  vol.  II,  page  140. 

\  The  reputed  author  of  the  "  View  of  the  Huttonian  and 
Neptunian  System,"  which  see,  page  55. 


255 

The  contemplation  of  the  structure  of  the  globe,  and 
the  various  geological  phenomena  that  are  presented 
to  view,  have  given  rise  to  numerous  opinions,  and  va- 
rious theories  ;  many  of  which,  from  their  plausibility, 
are  calculated  to  induce  a  belief  that  the  whole  fabrick, 
as  far  as  relates  to  the  nature,  order,  and  arrangement 
of  its  materials,  is  not  only  the  result  of  chance,  but 
subject  to  its  unlimited  control.  But  we  shall  find, 
on  a  more  general  and  attentive  investigation  of  the 
subject,  (and  such  is  indispensably  requisite  5  for 
opinions,  founded  on  a  superficial  examination  of 
local  facts,  will  never  constitute  a  theory,  that  will 
answer  for  the  whole,)  that  the  economy  of  this  earth, 
and  the  regulation  of  its  parts,  are  not  governed  by  a 
chain  of  fortuitous  circumstances,  nor  by  the  whims 
and  caprices  of  ephemeral  theorists ;  but  by  infinite 
power  and  intelligence  supreme. 


CHAPTER  XL 


By  no  means  so  common  and  so  extensive,  t£c. — - 
This  declaration  will  doubtless  be  considered  as 
amounting  almost  to  an  insult,  to  the  understandings 
of  observing  men ;  or,  at  least,  a  flagrant  dereliction 
from  truth,  and  every  principle  of  sound  reasoning 
and  of  established  facts  5  in  proof  of  which  the  Uel- 
tas  of  the  Po,  the  Arno,  the  Indus,  the  Tigris,  the 
Ganges,  the  Mississippi,  and  many  others,  but  parti- 
cularly the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  will  be  considered  as 
affording  unequivocal  and  irrefragable  evidence. 

I  am  fully  sensible  of  the  powerful  force  that  stands 
arrayed  against  me,  and  of  the  numerous  instances,  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  where  it  is  supposed  that 
the  Deltas  of  rivers  have  been  formed  exclusively  by 
the  alluvion  brought  down,  in  the  course  of  time,  by 
their  currents,  and  deposited  at  their  mouths  :  but  I 
am  not  disposed  to  shrink  from  the  contest,  though  it 
should  end  in  defeat,  since  my  only  object  is  the  deve- 
lopement  of  truth,  by  a  fair  and  candid  exposition  of 
facts. 

That  Deltas  have  been  formed  at  the  mouths  of  ma- 
ny rivers,  and,  in  some  instances,  to  a  very  great 


257 

extent,  is  a  well  known  fact.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  many  rivers  of  nearly  an  equal  size  and  ex- 
tent, where  there  are  no  deltas,  nor  even  the  appear- 
ance of  alluvial  deposites. 

Indeed  it  is  admitted  by  that  indefatigable  histo- 
rian, Major  Lien  nelly  that  "  all  capital  rivers  do  not 
form  deltas."* 

And  further,  Mr.  R.  observes,  "  However,  the  for- 
mation of  such  deltas,  even  by  rivers  of  the  first  magni- 
tude, is  by  no  means  universal ;  on  the  contrary,  some 
of  them  terminate  in  deep  inlets,  or  estuaries,  instead 
of  projecting  forms  :  or,  if  the  expression  may  be  al- 
lowed, they  terminate  negatively,  instead  of  positively. 
Of  this  class  may  be  recorded  the  great  rivers  of  the 
Amazons,  Plata,  and  the  Oronoko;  besides  many 
others,  which  bring  down  an  equal  quantity  of  matter 
of  alluvion,  with  the  Nile,  the  Ganges,  or  any  other 
river  that  may  form  the  most  projecting  delta."f 

Thus,  finding  that  all  great  rivers  do  not,  alike,  pro- 
duce, or  exhibit  deltas  at  their  mouths  ;  we  have  rea- 
son to  believe  that  their  formation  is  not  the  natural 
result  of  the  deposition  of  alluvion,  brought  down  by 
their  currents,  but  rather  of  a  combination  of  causes 
or  circumstances:  these  I  consider  of  three  different 
kinds,  viz  : 

Istly.   The  alluvion  of  the  river. 

2dly.   That  produced  by  the  winds,  and 

*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  page  481.         t  Do.  page  483. 


£58 

Sdly.  That  occasioned  directly  or  indirectly,  by 
the  labours  of  man. 

Under  these  circumstances  I  shall  proceed  to  exa- 
mine the  delta  of  the  Po,  a  case  as  interesting  in  its 
kind,  as  that  of  almost  any  other,  and  on  which  much 
has  been  said,  to  prove  that  it  is,  almost  exclusively, 
the  result  of  the  alluvion  brought  down  by  the  current 
of  that  river,  and  deposited  at  its  mouth. 

In  order  to  determine  the  quantity  and  extent  of  the 
alluvion,  naturally  formed  by  this  river,  it  is  necessa- 
ry to  ascertain,  as  near  as  possible,  what  were  the  si- 
tuation, and  appearances  at  its  mouth  and  in  its  vici- 
nity, when  first  known,  and  before  the  settlement  and 
cultivation  of  the  surrounding  country. 

This  it  is  difficult,  nay  impossible :,  to  determine  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy  :  we  have,  however,  a  datum 
afforded,  which  will  enable  us  to  form  an  opinion,  suf- 
ficiently correct  for  our  present  purpose.  It  is  that 
which  relates  to  the  city  of  Hatria,  now  Adria. 

M.  de  Prony,  in  his  researches  on  the  Hydraulick 
system  of  Italy,  observes,  «  We  are,  however,  certain, 
that  the  city  of  Hatria,  now  called  Adria,  was  former- 
ly situated  on  the  edge  of  the  coast ;  and  by  this  we  at- 
tain a  known  fixed  point  upon  the  primitive  shore, 
whence  the  nearest  part  of  the  present  coast,  at  the 
Adige,  is  at  the  distance  of  20,000  metres."* 

*  Equal  to  27.340  yards  and  10  inches  English  measure,  or  fif- 
teen and  a  half  miles,  and  sixty  yards. 


•89 

At  what  period  of  time  this  city  was  founded,  it  is 
«ot  in  my  power  to  determine  5  nevertheless,  it  claims 
a  rank  of  very  high  antiquity. 

M.  de  Prony  observes,  "The  inhabitants  of  Adria 
have  formed  exaggerated  pretensions,  in  many  res- 
pects, as  to  the  high  antiquity  of  their  city,  though  it  if 
undeniably  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  Italy,  as  it  gave 
name  to  the  sea  (the  Adriatic)  which  once  washed  its 
icalls." 

Whatever  claims  to  antiquity  may  be  asserted  by 
the  present  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Adria,  it  is  more 
than  probable,  that  an  immense  period  of  time  must 
have  passed  away,  before  the  smallest  marks  of  human 
industry  could  have  been  traced  upon  the  borders  of 
the  Eridanus,  or  Po.  If  we  extend  our  views  over  the 
wide  space,  that  lies  between  the  Adriatic  sea,  and  the 
residence  of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  our  earth,  and 
consider  the  slow  progress  of  civilization  and  popula- 
tion, extending  westerly  towards  the  borders  of  the 
Arabian  Gulf,  or  Red  Sea,  we  may  reasonably  con- 
clude, that  not  until  the  Phoenicians  had  extended  their 
views  of  maritime  commerce,  to  more  distant  regions 
down  the  Mediterranean,  was  the  Adriatic  sea  even 
known,  much  less  navigated,  by  any  people  then  in 
existence.  Hence  we  may  suppose  that  a  period  of 
2000  years,  and  perhaps  much  more,  had  elapsed,  be- 
fore the  site,  on  which  Adria  was  fixed  upon  for  a 
commercial  city,  was  known.  At  this  period  then,  it 
appears,  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  delta  formed,  or 
forming  at  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  for  they  had  establish- 


2(50 

ed  a  (:  fixed  point  upon  the  primitive  shore,  for  the 
building  of  the  city,  and  that  too,  on  the  edge  of  the 
coast  of  that  sea,  which  once  washed  its  walls."*  This 
circumstance,  (one  that  might  naturally  be  supposed  by 
every  thinking  mind,)  rendered  highly  probable,  dis- 
covers, on  the  part  of  the  founders  of  that  city,  no  com- 
mon degree  of  sagacity  and  foresight ;  for  had  there 
been  the  commencement  of  a  delta,  that  was  annually 
increasing  by  alluvial  deposites  from  the  river,  it  would 
have  betrayed  a  great  want  of  judgment,  in  building  a 
city  at  a  point  which,  in  the  course  of  a  century  or  two, 
must  inevitably  be  left  at  some  distance  inland,  and 
from  the  sea,  where  their  commercial  pursuits  must 
naturally  centre. 

As  soon  as  the  city  had  assumed  a  more  respectable 
stand,  in  point  of  extent  and  population,  and  the  busy 
hum  of  commerce  had  engaged  the  enterprising  spirit 
of  its  inhabitants,  we  may  date  the  probable  commence- 
ment of  the  formation  of  its  delta,  and  for  reasons 
hereafter. 

Hut  what  was  the  rate  of  its  slow  and  gradual  in- 
crease, during  a  series  of  ages,  no  means  are  left  to 
ascertain. 

"  The  most  ancient  notices,"  says  M.  de  Prony, 
"  that  I  have  been  able  to  procure  respecting  the  situa- 
tion of  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  at  the  mouths  of  the 
Po,  only  begin  to  be  precise  in  the  twelfth  century." 

At  this  period,  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  more 
than  three  thousand  years  after  the  founding  the  city 

*  M.  de  Proney's  Researches. 


261 

of  Adria,  the  shore  of  the  Adriatic  had  heen  removed 
to  the  distance  of  about  ten  thousand  metres*  from  it. 

This  intrusion  of  the  delta,  will  give  an  annual 
average  increase  of  ahout  ten  feet  and  a  half. 

But  it  must  he  recollected;  that  the  increase  of  the 
alluvial  formation,  at  first,  was  scarcely  perceptible; 
and  that  its  subsequent  extension  was  almost  in  a  geo- 
metrical proportion  ;  so  that  the  gain  of  the  last  five 
hundred  years,  must  have  been,  perhaps,  nearly  equal 
to  the  whole  gain  during  the  preceding  period,  as  will 
appear  in  the  sequel. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  rapid  increase  of  the  delta 
at  the  Po,  from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  to  that 
of  the  sixteenth,  and  so  on,  to  see  the  proportion  which 
the  gain  of  the  latter  hears  to  the  former,  in  order  to 
determine  whether  it  has  heen  produced  by  the  allu- 
vion brought  down  by  the  current  of  the  river. 

61  During  four  centuries,"  says  M.  de  Prony,  "  from 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  to  that  of  the  sixteenth,  the  al- 
luvial formation  of  the  Po  gained  considerably  upon 
the  sea." 

The  northern  mouth,  which  had  usurped  the  situa- 
tion of  the  Mazzarno  canal,  becoming  the  Ramo  di 
Tramontana,  had  advanced  in  the  year  1600,  to  the 
distance  of  twenty  thousand  metresf  from  the  meridian 
of  Adria;  and  the  southern  mouth,  which  had  taken 

*  Equal  to  ten  thousand  nine  hundred  thirty-six  yards,  or  six 
miles  and  three  hundred  sixty-four  yards. 

t  Equal  to  twenty-one  thousand  eight  hundred  seventy -two 
yards. 


possession  of  the  canal  of  Toy,  was  then  seventeen 
thousand  metres  (or  eighteen  thousand  five  hundred 
ninety- one  yards,)  advanced  beyond  the  same  point. 
Thus,  the  shore  had  become  extended  nine  or  ten  thou- 
sand metres  (or  ten  thousand  nine  hundred  thirty-six 
yards,)  to  the  north,  and  six  or  seven  thousand  to  the 
south,  (equal  to  seven  thousand  six  hundred  fifty-five 
yards.)  "  Between  these  two  mouths  there  was  for- 
merly a  bay,  or  part  of  the  coast  less  advanced  than 
the  rest,  called  Sacca  di  Goro.  During  the  same  period 
of  foar  hundred  years,  previous  to  the  commencement 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  great  and  extensive 
embankments  of  the  Po  were  constructed ;  and  also, 
during  the  same  period,  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Alps  began  to  be  cultivated. " 

From  this,  it  appears  that  the  extension  of  the  delta 
at  the  Po,  had  increased,  in  the  space  of  about  four 
hundred  years,  nearly  eight  thousand  yards ;  a  dis- 
tance nearly  equal  to  eight  tenths  of  what  it  had 
gained  during  the  whole  period,  from  the  founding  of 
the  city  of  Adria  to  the  twelfth  century.  An  enor- 
mous disproportion,  as  must  be  admitted  on  all  hands. 
But  let  us  examine  the  subject  a  little  further,  in  order 
to  comprehend  the  full  extent  of  this  rapid  increase. 

"The  great  canal,  denominated  Taglio  de  Porto 
Viro,  or  Podelle  Fornaci,  ascertains  the  advance  of 
the  alluvial  depositions  in  the  vast  promontory  now 
formed  by  the  mouths  or  delta  of  the  Po." 

"In  proportion  as  their  entrances  into  the  sea  extend 
from  the  original  land,  the  yearly  quantity  of  alluvial 


263 

depositions  increases  in  an  alarming  degree,  owing" 
(in  his  opinion)  "to  the  diminished  slope  of  the  streams, 
which  was  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  prolonga- 
tion of  their  bed,  to  the  confinement  of  the  waters  be- 
tween dykes,  and  to  the  facility  with  which  the  in- 
creased cultivation  of  the  ground  enabled  the  mountain 
torrents,  which  flowed  into  them,  to  carry  away  the  soil. 
Owing  to  these  causes,  the  boy  called  Sacca  di  Goro, 
was  very  soon  filled  up,  and  the  two  promontories, 
which  had  been  formed  by  the  two  former  principal 
mouths  of  Mazzarno  and  Toy,  w  ere  united  into  one 
vast  projecting  cape,  the  most  advanced  point  of  which 
is  now  about  thirty-three  thousand  metres*  beyond  the 
meridian  of  Adria;  so  that  in  the  course  of  two  hun- 
dred years,  the  mouths  or  delta  of  the  Po,  have  gained 
about  fourteen  thousand  metresf  upon  the  sea.'"J 

Hence  it  appears,  that  the  delta  of  the  Po  has  gained 
upon  the  Adriatic  sea,  (by  a  rough  calculation)  in  the 
last  two  hundred  years,  about  eight  miles  and  a  half; 
almost  twice  as  much  as  it  had  gained  in  the  preceding 
four  hundred  years,  from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  to  that 
of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  and  more  (in  proportion  as 
eight  is  to  six,)  than  it  had  gained  from  the  found- 
ing of  the  city  of  Adria  to  the  twelfth  century,  a  pe- 
riod, probably,  of  about  three  thousand  years. 

*From    nineteen  miles  seven   furlongs   and   fifteen  yards,    to 
twenty  miles  four  furlongs  and  three  yards,  English  measure, 
f  About  eight  miles  and  a  half. 
t  See  Cimer'i  Theory  of  the  Earth,  Amcr.  edition,  p.  281—2. 


To  what  shall  we  attribute  this  surprising  difference, 
this  amazing  disproportion?  Not,  certainly,  to  the  al- 
luvion brought  down  by  the  current  of  the  river  Po. 
If  its  waters  had  been  rendered  turbid  with  mud  or  jil- 
luvion,  from  one  end  of  the  year  to  the  other,  for  the 
space,  of  two  hundred  years,  which  is  a  case  unheard 
of  or  unknown,  we  could  scarcely  believe,  that  it 
would  afford  a  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  that  dif- 
ference ;  for  it  must  be  recollected,  that  as  the  delta 
advances  into  the  Adriatic,  or  any  other  sea,  the  depth 
of  the  water  is  very  much  increased,  and,  particularly, 
when  we  advance  to  the  distance  of  twenty-one  miles 
from  the  shore  ;  at  least  it  is  so  in  most  seas. 

M.  de  Prony  has  attempted  to  account  for  this  rapid 
increase  of  annual  deposites,  by  two  causes. 

First,  the  cultivation  of  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Alps,  and  the  districts  on  the  borders  of  the  Po,  and, 
consequently,  by  the  facility  with  which  the  moun- 
tain torrents,  which  flowed  into  the  rivers,  conveyed 
away  the  soil. 

It  is  very  natural  to  suppose  that  these  circumstances 
would  tend  much  indeed,  to  increase  the  quantity  of 
alluvion,  since  but  very  little  is  ever  seen  to  be  carried 
away  from  uncleared,  or  uncultivated  lauds,  although 
exposed  to  the  full  force  of  torrents  of  rain. 

In  a  country  covered  with  forest  trees,  and  a  bed  of 
leaves,  or  upon,  land  covered  with  a  thick  sward,  the 
water,  during  a  torrent  of  rain,  .is  seen  to  run  off  in 
all  directions,  almost  as  clear  as  it  fell  from  the  clouds. 
This  may  be  observed,  in  such  situations  at  all  times 


during  long  continued  and  heavy  rains;  but  if  it  should 
happen  to  collect  in  a  point  at  the  head  of  a  valley, 
where  the  hanks  are  a  little  broken  away,  it  is  sure 
to  increase  the  breach,  and  carry  with  it  much  sand 
or  alluvial  matter. 

With  cultivated  grounds,  however,  the  case  is  ma- 
terially different ;  and,  in  every  instance,  where  the 
earth  is  newly  broken  up  and  exposed,  it  is  liable  to 
be  carried  away,  both  by  wind  and  rain  :  every  furrow 
of  a  corn  field  becomes  a  conduit,  through  the  channel 
of  which,  the  rain  waters  are  conveyed  away,  satura- 
ted with  alluvion,  into  larger  streams,  from  thence  into 
creeks,  and  from  creeks  into  rivers  to  be  wafted  down 
their  currents. 

Hence,  it  will  readily  be  admitted,  that  the  improve- 
ment and  cultivation  of  districts  on  the  borders  of  ri- 
vers, and  in  the  vicinity  of  their  embrochures,  will 
have  a  tendency,  under  certain  circumstances,  to  pro- 
mote the  increase  and  extension  of  deltas,  and  to  these 
we  may,  in  a  certain  degree,  attribute  their  annual 
gain  in  an  increased  ratio. 

To  this  last  however,  (viz.)  the  annual  extension 
of  deltas  in  an  increased  ratio,  Mr.  RenneU  seems  to 
be  opposed,  and  on  the  subject  of  which,  and  the  pro- 
gressive diminution  of  the  soil  of  mountains,  he  makes 
the  following  observations. 

"  We  never  fail  to  remark  (says  Mr.  Rcnnell)  on  a 
survey  of  the  naked  summits  of  mountains,  that  the 
rain  has  in  a  course  of  ages,  washed  away  the  earth 

that  covered  them  ;   or,   in  other  words,   that  there  is 

35 


266 

a  progressive  motion  of  the  finer  particles  of  earth 
from  the  mountains,  towards  the  valleys." 

"  Admitting  this  to  be  true,  and  also  that  a  propor- 
tion of  it  is  swept  away  by  the  torrents :  the  longer 
the  rivers  continue  to  run,  the  less  quantity  of  earth 
they  must  carry  away  with  them ;  and  therefore  the 
increase  of  the  deltas  and  other  alluvions  of  capital 
rivers,  must  have  been  more  rapid  in  the  earlier  pe- 
riods of  the  world? s  age,  than  now."* 

This,  however,  is  evidently  a  mistaken  opinion; 
for  we  may  confidently  assert,  that  the  annual  exten- 
sion of  deltas  or  alluvial  formations,  is  in  an  increas- 
ed ratio,  proportionate  to  the  improvement  and  culti- 
vation of  the  districts  in  their  vicinities,  and  par- 
ticularly so  in  that  of  most  maritime  cities,  situated  at, 
or  near,  the  mouths  of  rivers  ;  nevertheless,  it  does 
not  depend,  but  in  part,  on  the  increased  quantity  of 
alluvion  brought  down  by  the  currents  of  such  rivers. 

I  have  remarked  that  the  formation  of  deltas  in 
general,  depends  on  three  causes  : — The  first  is  that 
of  the  alluvion  of  rivers,  so  called,  being  that  which 
is  held  suspended  and  brought  down  by  their  currents. 

This  I  shall  proceed  first  to  consider. 

The  alluvion  of  all  rivers,  in  the  earlier  periods  of 
time,  and  even  at  the  present,  when  they  run  through  a 
country,  overgrown  with  forest  trees  and  covered  with 
leaves,  or  a  thick  sward,  that  extends  to  the  utmost 
extremity  of  their  auxiliary  branches,  must  necessarily 

*  Rennell's  Map  of  Hindoostan,  page  257. 


267 

have  been  comparatively  small ;  for  we  may  observe 
at  the  present  time,  in  deep  forests  during  long  con- 
tinued and  heavy  rains,  the  water  running  oft',  as  I 
have  before  remarked,  into  brooks  that  are  scarcely 
rendered  turbid  by  alluvion. 

As  the  waters  increase  and  descend  from  one  chan- 
nel to  another,  into  the  principal  stream  or  river,  its 
waters  are  elevated ;  and  its  shores,  by  being  softened, 
and  in  some  instances  excavated  by  currents,  occasion 
the  banks  to  break  off  and  fall  down.  This,  mixing 
with  the  current,  adds  to  the  quantity  of  alluvion, 
which  is  borne  away  by  the  rapidity  of  the  flood. 
But  a  part,  only,  of  this,  as  I  have  already  stated,  is 
wafted  to  a  very  great  distance  ;  for  as  soon  as  the 
current  is  slackened,  or  checked  in  its  progress,  the 
silicious  part,  or  sand,  is  precipitated  to  the  bottom  ; 
while  the  alluminous  or  clayey  part,  being  much 
lighter,  is  held  long  suspended  and  carried  to  a  greai 
distance. 

In  this  I  am  supported  by  the  opinion  of  that  very 
acute  observer  Mr.  Rennell,  who  says,  "The  mud 
and  sand  suspended  in  these  waters,  during  this  mo- 
tion, are  deposited  when  that  motion  ceases ;  or 
rather,  they  are  gradually  deposited  as  the  current 
slackens  :  according  to  the  gravity  of  the  substances 
that  are  suspended"* 


*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  page  489, 


368 

Hence  it  is,  that  we  have  sand  bars,  or  alluvial  for- 
mations below  projecting  points  of  land  ;  at,  or  near, 
and  below  the  entrance  of  one  river  into  another.* 

As  soon  as  the  current  of  a  river  receives  the  check 
of  a  strong  and  high  tide,  the  sandy  particles,  how- 
ever little  or  great  the  quantity,  are  deposited  at  the 
bottom  ;  hence,  it  may  be  presumed,  we  have  no 
deltas  at  the  mouths  of  all  our  northern  rivers,  where 
the  tides  are  strong  and  rise  high. 

Here  again  I  have  the  support  of  Mr.  Rennell,  who 
sometimes  advances  an  opinion  at  variance  with  the 
theory  which  he  is  endeavouring  to  support. 

Speaking  of  the  deltas  of  rivers  he  says,  "  Which 
rivers,  having  brought  down  with  their  floods,  vast 
quantities  of  mud  and  sand  from  the  upper  lands,  de- 
posite  them  in  the  lowest  place  in  the  sea ;  at  whose 
margin  the  current  which  has  hitherto  impelled  them, 
ceasing,  they  are  deposited  by  the  mere  action  of 
gravity."^ 

With  rivers,  on  the  contrary,  however  large  or 
smalL  that  fall  into  deep  bays  or  gulfs,  where  there 
are  but  little  or  no  tides  to  check  the  force  of  their  cur- 
rents, as  with  the  Mississippi,  and  the  several  rivers  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  the  ^Nile,  the  Po,  and  other  rivers 
that  are  disharged  into  the  Mediterranean  sea,  the  case 
is  materially  different,  and  it  will  be  admitted  that  under 

*  See  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Travels  up  the  Missouri, 
t  ReiincU'b  Herodotus,  page  484. 


269 

such  circumstances,  the  alluvion  of  rivers  is  rendered, 
in  some  degree,  tributary  to  the  formation  of  deltas  ; 
but  it  is  comparatively  less,  in  relation  to  the  Po>  the 
Indus,  the  Nile,  &c.  than  thnt  occasioned,  2dly,  hy 
the  improvement  and  cultivation  of  lands,  and  also 
by  the  existence  of  sandy  deserts  in  the  vicinity  of 
such  deltas. 

The  improvement  and  cultivation  of  lands,  in  al- 
mo«t  all  situations,  on  the  borders  of  rivers,  and  at 
their  mouths,  renders  the  soil  peculiarly  liable  to  be 
carried  away,  both  by  rains  and  wind,  into  the  rivers 
or  sea ;  which  tends  greatly  to  the  increase  of  allu- 
vion, and  the  formation  of  sand  bars,  banks,  and 
deltas ;  the  latter  in  particular  is  a  powerful  agent  in 
this  business,  though  but  seldom,  or  but  little  attended 
to. — Indeed  the  phenomena  of  winds,  as  they  relate 
to  this  subject,  seem  not  to  have  received  that  degree 
of  attention  which  they  justly  merit,  and  which  is  re- 
quired by  every  principle  of  truth  and  sound  philoso- 
phy. But  a  little  attention  and  observation  will  sooii 
convince  any  person,  susceptible  of  conviction,  that 
the  same  phenomena  accompany  the  winds,  or  currents 
of  air,  as  do  currents  of  water.  If  the  current  of  a 
river  flow  majestically  along,  though  at  the  rate  of 
four  or  five  miles  in  an  hour,  not  a  grain  of  sand  is  dis- 
turbed or  lifted  from  the  bottom  ;  for  the  current  of 
water  is  often  so  clear,  that  we  may  see  to  the  depth  of 
one  and  even  two  fathoms ;  nay,  it  is  said  from  eight 
to  ten  fathoms  in  a  clear  day.  If  we  trace  up  its 
auxiliary  branches,  even  to  the  smallest  brooks^  we 


find  their  currents  flowing  with  a  steady  course, 
though  in  some  instances  with  great  rapidity,  plunging 
over  rocks  and  precipices,  yet  no  alluvion  or  a  grain 
of  sand  is  seen  to  disturb  the  pellucid  streams.  If  a 
rock,  or  an  island  obstruct  its  course,  its  current  is 
changed.  If  it  should  pass  through  a  strait,  or  be  con- 
tracted by  projecting  points  of  land,  its  velocity  is 
increased,  yet  it  is  steady  in  its  course.  The  same, 
with  some  small  difference,  may  be  observed  in  the 
currents  of  air,  or  wind. 

On  the  contrary,  when,  by  the  melting  of  snows  or 
the  falling  of  rains,  the  waters  rush  in  torrents  into 
the  auxiliary  branches,  and  thence  by  latteral  courses 
into  the  rivers,  their  currents  are  agitated,  their 
velocity  increased,  the  sand  and  alluvions  matter  is 
torn  up  and  wafted  away  with  their  streams. 

If  there  be  an  island,  or  islands,  or  other  obstruc- 
tions in  its  course,  they  occasion  a  counter  current,  or 
eddy  at  their  lower  extremity,  where  the  current  is 
slackened,  and  the  alluvion  is  deposited ;  and  where 
there  is  an  annual,  and  sometimes  semi-annual  recur- 
rence of  these  causes,  and  repeated  for  ages,  need  we 
wonder  that  shifting  sand  banks,  bars,  and  islands, 
should  be  formed  in  the  beds  of  rivers  ?  However  it 
may  be,  the  same  results  are  produced  by  violent  and 
unsteady,  or  variable  currents  of  the  air,  or  winds. 

If  the  winds  rush,  in  unsteady  and  violent  gusts, 
over  the  land,  no  matter  from  what  quarter  or  point  of 
the  compass,  not  only  the  dust  but  even  the  sand  is 
hurled  into  the  air  with  the  same  facility  as  by  a 


271 

current  of  water,  and  wafted  in  clouds  over  the  land, 
varying  on  its  course,  until  meeting  with  some  obstruc- 
tions by  which  its  current  is  slackened,  it  immediately 
deposited  its  alluvion,  (for  it  is  nearly  the  same  thing) 
to  the  leeward  of  whatever  object  may  interrupt  its 
course.  Jt  may  be  said,  who  does  not  know  all  this? 

But  there  is  a  variety  of  other  phenomena  of  a  simi- 
lar nature  accompanying  he  operations  of  winds,  one 
of  which  is  particularly  worthy  of  notice  in  the  present 
instance. 

It  is,  that  when  a  river  running  through  a  country  is 
confined  for  any  considerable  distance  from  its  influx 
into  the  sea  or  bay,  between  high  ridges  of  hills,  or 
banks,  there  is  a  current  of  wind  rushing  down  its 
course,  differing  one  or  two  points  from  the  general 
course  of  the  wind  that  may  be  prevailing  at  the  time, 
or  blowing  in  nearly  a  corresponding  direction. 

Thus  if  a  river  runs  in  a  southerly  direction,  and  the 
wind  is  blowing  fresh  from  the  north  east,  and  raising 
the  dust  and  sand  in  its  course,  when  it  meets  with  the 
current  of  air  flowing  down  the  river,  under  the  circum- 
stances which  I  have  mentioned,  the  same  phenomena 
may  be  observed,  as  when  the  rapid  currents  of  two 
rivers  unite  ;  the  sand  and  dust  are  whirled  around  in 
the  most  confused  manner,  and  at  last  let  fall  upon  the 
shore,  and  in  the  water,  where,  if  the  tide  is  setting 
towards  the  shore,  the  sand  will  be  again  thrown  upon 
the  beach.  Hence  it  is,  that  we  often  see  narrow  pro- 
jecting points  of  sand  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  running 
through  a  sandy  country.  They  may  be  observed  at 


the  mouths  of  rivers  on  the  Chesapeak  bay,  and  parti- 
cularly at  the  mouth  of  the  Severn  ;  the  current  of 
which,  during  the  heaviest  rains,  was,  perhaps,  never 
sufficiently  strong  and  rapid  to  float  the  sand,  of  which 
the  flat  is  composed  at  the  entrance  of  that  river,  one 
mile  ;  and  for  reasons  which  it  is  not  necessary  to 
mention  here. 

The  increase  of  alluvion  from  this  cause,  may  be 
thought  to  be  very  small,  indeed ;  and  as  bearing  no 
comparison  with  that  brought  down  by  the  current  of 
rivers ;  but  it  must  be  considered,  that  a  recurrence  of 
this  cause  may  happen  every  week,  or  continue  for  a 
week.  Whereas,  rivers  seldom  bring  down  much  al- 
luvion, except  during  the  heavy  autumnal  rains,  or  the 
melting  of  the  snows  in  the  spring,  which  rarely  occur 
more  than  twice  in  the  year. 

Having  briefly  considered  the  phenomena  of  winds, 
and  their  operations  in  increasing  the  quantity  and  ex- 
ten^ion  of  alluvial  formations,  I  shall  proceed  tu  ex- 
amine, 3dly,  that  which  is  occasioned,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  by  the  labours  of  man. 

That  which  is  caused  directly  by  the  labours  of  man, 
is  by  dyking,  filling  up,  &c.  and  that  which  is  occa- 
sioned indirectly,  is  the  accumulation  of  tilth  and  offals 
from  a  city,  which,  when  it  is  a  large  and  populous 
one,  amounts,  in  the  course  of  a  few  hundred  years,  to 
an  inconceivable  quantity. 

These  may  not  be  considered  strictly  as  alluvion ; 
nevertheless,  they  both  constitute  powerful  auxiliaries 
in  the  increase  and  extension  of  deltas,  or  made  ground. 


where  the  means  are  resorted  to,  or  otherwise  afforded  ; 
and  such  is  the  case  with  that  of  the  Po,  the  Mile,  and 
many  other  places  in  similar  situations. 

As  soon,  almost,  as  a  city  is  founded,  at  the  entrance 
of  a  river  into  a  bay  or  gulf,  the  inhabitants,  in  order 
to  favour  their  commercial  views,  commence  the  ope- 
ration of  w barfing,  dyking,  &c.  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire. If  a  part  of  the  city  happen  to  be  on  each  side 
of  the  river,  a  corresponding  course  is  pursued,  and 
the  river  is  not  only  confined  to  a  less  breadth,  but  is 
goon  extended  into  the  bay  or  guli,  beyond  its  usual 
limits.  The  bed  of  the  river,  having  no  longer  a  de- 
scent, and  the  waters  of  the  bay  or  gulf  retaining  the 
same  height  and  level,  the  current  of  the  river  is 
checked ;  the  small  quantity  of  alluvion  that  may  have 
been  suspended  in  its  current  above,  is  deposited ;  the 
offals  and  washing  of  the  streets  of  a  city  by  rains,  be- 
ing thrown  into  the  river,  are  likewise  deposited,  and 
greatly  increase  the  quantity. 

In  a  few  years,  as  dyking  and  wharfing  are  ex- 
tended, the  evil  is  found  to  increase ;  for  the  wrters  of 
the  river,  having  a  still  greater  distance  to  pass  be- 
yond the  original  limits  of  the  bay,  where  the  river 
formerly  discharged  itself,  are  still  more  retarded,  and 
only  the  lighter  particles  of  alluvion  are  suffered  to 
pass  off  into  the  bay  or  ocean.  In  this  state  of  things, 
while  the  sources  of  alluvion  are  constantly  augment- 
ing, in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  population,  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  lands  in  the  vicinity,  the  naviga-  • 
tion  of  the  river  is  found  to  be  obstructed,  from  the  ele- 

36 


274 

ration  of  its  bed  by  alluvion,  and  it  becomes  indisppfc- 
sibly  necessary  to  remove  it,  for  fear  of  worse  conse- 
quences. This  being  thrown  upon  the  dykes,  helps  to 
increase  their  extension  and  elevation,  and  also  to  in- 
crease the  quantity  of  made  ground. 

Thus,  as  these  operations  are  continued  and  re- 
peated, the  alluvion  is  found  to  accumulate  in  an  in- 
creased ratio,  and  the  bed  of  the  river  becomes  ele- 
vated again,  even  above  or  higher  than  where  the  river 
formerly  united  with  the  bay,  and  there  is  no  descent 
to  carry  off  the  water.  The  consequence  is,  that  if 
the  obstruction  be  not  seasonably  removed,  and  there 
occurs  an  unusual  high  tide,  the  waters  or  current  of 
the  river,  defying  opposition,  makes  a  breach  or  more, 
through  the  dykes,  and  forms  lateral  canals  or  courses 
into  the  gulf.  The  earth  or  alluvion  thus  accumu- 
lated, either  directly  or  indirectly,  is  conveyed  still 
further  into  the  gulf,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  clear 
out  the  bed  of  the  river,  repair  the  breaches,  and  fill 
up -the  new  canals,  in  order  to  confine  the  river  to  its 
original  bed,  and  secure  the  advantage  of  its  naviga- 
tion. 

Another  consequence  attending  the  division  of  the 
waters  of  a  river  by  a  breach,  or  irruption  through  its 
banks  or  dykes,  is,  that  when  the  breach  is  repaired 
and  filled  up,  at  one  or  both  extremities,  the  ground 
being  on  a  descent  from  the  river,  or  lower  at  a  little 
distance  than  at  its  margin,  small  laguues  or  lakes  are 
formed. 


These,  however,  are,  in  a  few  years,  filled  up  by 
the  operations  of  rains  upon  the  surrounding  new  made 
grounds,  and  that  of  the  winds,  which,  in  dry  seasons, 
elevate  the  dust  and  soil  in  clouds,  from  high  and  ex- 
posed situations,  and  deposite  them  in  those  which  arc 
tranquil  and  low. 

Thus  the  progressive  work  is  continued  through 
succeeding  ages,  deriving  its  materials  from  the  sources 
which  I  have  described,  and  forming  new  districts  be- 
yond the  ancient  limits  of  the  ocean,  for  the  improve- 
ment, cultivation,  and  residence  of  man. 

To  these  causes  we  may  look,  for  the  formation  of 
the  delta  of  the  Po,  in  support  of  which,  1  shall  offer 
some  of  the  remarks  of  M.  de  Prony. 

In  speaking  of  the  great  canal,  denominated  Taglio 
di  Porto  Viro,  or  Podelle  Fornaci,  he  observes :  "  In 
proportion  as  their  entrances  into  the  sea  extend  from 
the  original  land,  the  yearly  quantity  of  alluvial  depo- 
sitions increases  in  an  alarming  degree,  owing  to  the 
diminished  slope  of  the  streams,  which  was  a  necessary 
consequence  of  the  prolongation  of  their  bed,  to  the 
confinement  of  the  waters  between  dykes,  and  to  the 
facility  with  which  the  increased  cultivation  of  the 
ground  enabled  the  mountain  torrents  which  flowed 
into  them  to  carry  away  the  soil.* 

Here  the  increased  cultivation  of  the  grounds,  which 
enabled  the  mountain  torrents  to  carry  away  the  soil, 
is  considered  as  the  principal  source  of  the  alluviou, 

*  See  Cuvier's  Iheorj,  Aaiericao  edition,  p.  181. 


by  which  the  bed  of  the  river  or  canals,  was  elevated, 
the  currents  retarded,  in  consequence  of  the  diminish- 
ed slope,  and  the  delta  extended  ;  but  is  it  not  proba- 
ble that  this  source  existed  previous  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  average  annual 
increase  of  the  delta  was  only  about  ten  feet  and  a 
half?  It  may  be  said  that  the  cultivation  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  at  that  period,  was  comparatively 
small  and  limited,  (which  by  the  by  is  much  doubted) 
but  admitting  this  to  be  the  case,  we  will  assume 
the  period  of  four  hundred  years,  or  in  other  words, 
from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  to  that  of  the 
sixteenth.  Is  it  probable  that  the  increased  culti- 
vation of  the  neighbouring  districts  was  such  as  to  cause 
an  annual  average  increase  of  twenty-five  metres,  or 
twenty-seven  yards,  one  foot  and  one  quarter  of  an 
inch,  (more  than  eighty- seven  feet)  when  the  annual 
average  increase,  previous  to  the  twelfth  century,  was 
only  ten  feet  and  a  half  ? 

Or  is  it  possible  that  it  could  have  been  such,  dur- 
ing the  last  two  centuries,  as  to  give  an  average  in- 
crease of  extension,  to  the  delta,  of  seventy  metres, 
equal  to  seventy-six  yards,  one  foot  seven  inches  and 
a  half,  or  two  hundred  twenty-nine  feet,  seven  inches 
and  a  half;  a  difference  exceeding  that  of  the  preced- 
ing period  by  one  hundred  and  forty-one  feet,  five 
inches  annually  ?  To  me  it  seems  impossible. 

On  the  contrary,  if  we  examine  attentively  the 
causes  which  I  have  mentioned;  the  nature  and  source 
of  the  materials,  and  the  means  employed  in  these 


277 

operations,  we  shall  not  hesitate  in  acknowledging 
that  they  are  amply  sufficient,  to  effect  the  great  and 
wonderful  change  which,  in  the  course  of  time,  has 
been  produced  at  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  without  refer- 
ing  it  to  the  alluvion  brought  down  by  the  current  of 
that  river  and  its  auxiliary  branches. 

In  support  of  this,  J.  might  add  many  interesting 
facts,  all  tending  to  prove  that  the  operations  of  the 
winds  and  rain,  on  the  cultivated  grounds  in  the  vici- 
nity of  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  and  the  direct  labours  of 
man  immediately  upon  the  new  formed  district,  have 
been  the  principal  cause  of  the  increase  and  extension 
of  the  delta  at  the  mouth  of  that  river. 

It  may  be  thought  by  some,  however,  that  these  two 
latter  causes,  are  altogether  insufficient,  if  they  exist, 
to  produce  that  difference ;  and  it  may  even  be  asked 
from  whence  came  the  materials  to  cause  this  surpris- 
ing change,  since  they  are  no  where  missed  ? 

If  I  might  be  allowed  to  compare  great  with  small 
things,  or  to  reason  from  small  to  great  things,  I 
would  answer  by  the  following  fact. 

We  observe  on  some  of  the  alluvial  plains  of  the 
northern  or  eastern  states,  sometimes  in  the  open 
ground,  but  more  frequently  in  the  depth  of  forests, 
a  cluster  of  mounds,  or  pyramids  of  sand,  which,  in 
some  instances,  have  the  resemblance  of  a  miniature 
encampment.  They  are  the  result  of  the  labour  and 
perseverance  of  a  large  species  of  the  red  and  black 
ant,  probably  the  Formica  media  rubra,  and  Nigra, 
of  Ray,  and  which,  in  the  warm  seasons,  when  they 


are  active  and  busy  in  their  labours,  cannot  be  ap- 
proached with  impunity  by  any  person.  These 
mounds  are  generally  of  a  serai -spherical  form,  and 
from  five  to  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  two  to 
four  feet  in  height.  There  are  but  few  persons  who 
would  not  say,  on  a  slight  examination  of  these 
mounds,  and  without  being  acquainted  with  the  habits 
of  these  little  animals,  that  it  was  impossible  they 
could  have  been  built  or  formed  by  such  means  with- 
out producing  a  correspondent  depression  of  the  earth 
in  their  immediate  vicinity.  Such,  however,  is  not 
the  fact.  On  the  contrary  they  have  been  raised,  to 
the  above  size,  sometimes  in  the  course  of  two  or  three 
years,  by  the  industry  and  perseverance  of  these  com- 
paratively minute  animals, 

W  hat  may  we  not  expect  then  from  the  labours  of 
men,  through  a  series  of  ages,  when  assisted  in  the 
work  by  such  powerful  auxiliaries  as  wind  and  rains  ? 


CHAPTER  XII. 

G  briefly  examined  the  delta  of  the  Po,  I  shall 
proceed  to  notice  those  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Indus. 

Unfortunately,  however,  it  so  happens,  that  from 
the  paucity  of  materials,  it  is  difficult,  nay  impossible 
to  give  a  true  and  correct  exposition  of  the  subject. 
But  with  such  as  we  have,  and  a  slight  reference  to 
analogy,  we  may  hazard  a  decision  that  will  not,  per- 
haps, be  much  at  variance  with  trnth. 

It  is  unnecessary,  in  the  present  instance,  to  describe 
the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  the  Boorampooter,  and  the 
Indus,  or  the  magnitude,  extent,  and  meanderings  of 
their  streams ;  nor  the  different  countries  through 
which  they  severally  flow.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the 
river  Indus  is  equal  in  size  to  the  Nile.* 

On  the  subject  of  its  delta  Mr.  Rennell  observes, 
"  From  these  data,  together  with  the  aid  of  the  chart 
of  the  coast,  published  by  Mr.  Dalrymple,  it  may  be 
collected  that  the  delta  of  the  Indus  is  about  150 
British  miles  in  length,  along  the  sea  coast :  and  about 
115  in  depth,  from  the  place  of  separation  of  the  su- 
periour  branches  of  the  river,  to  the  most  prominent 
point  of  the  sea  coast,  "f 

*  See  Renuell's  Map  of  Hindostan,  page  182.        +  Do.  p.  181. 


380 

The  river  Ganges  is  much  larger  than  the  latter,  and 
receives,  at  no  considerable  distance  from  its  original 
influx  into  the  sea,  the  whole  of  the  Boorampooter, 
likewise  a  very  large  and  extensive  river, — from 
thence  they  flow,  in  one  body  into  the  sea,  or  Bay  of 
Bengal. 

"  About  220  miles  from  the  sea,  (says  Mr.  Ren- 
well,)  commences  the  head  of  the  delta  of  the  Granges, 
which  is  considerably  more  than  twice  the  area  of  that 
of  the  Nile."* 

What  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  on  the  borders  of 
these  rivers,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine.  Most  pro- 
bably,  licwever,  it  is  similar  to  that  of  most  other 
countries,  and  composed  of  every  kind. 

And  as  to  the  origin  of  their  inhabitants,  the  com- 
mencement  and  progress  of  population,  or  the  degree 
and  extent  of  improvement  and  cultivation,  in  the 
earlier  periods  of  time,  it  is  perhaps  impossible  to 
ascertain  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  Nevertheless 
it  is  highly  probable  that  these  countries  were  the  first 
on  which  were  bestowed  the  labours  of  men,  as  it  is 
said  they  inhabited  the  borders  of  the  Ganges,  f  and 
that  these  inhabitants  were  the  first  to  inculcate  les- 
sons on  agriculture  and  practical  husbandry. 

As  population  increased  and  extended  to  the  east, 
the  west,  and  the  north,  we  may  reasonably  conclude 
that  the  improvement  and  cultivation  of  the  lands  wer« 

*  Rennell's  Map  of  Hindostan,  page  338. 
t  See  Kirwan's  Essays. 


281 

proportionably  increased  ;  consequently  contributing 
to  the  increase  of  the  alluvial  depositions  at  the 
mouths  of  those  rivers. 

The  next  circumstance  of  importance  that  we  have 
to  examine  in  this  case,  is  the  nature,  extent,  and  ope- 
ration of  the  tides,  on  the  currents  of  those  rivers. 

The  river  Indus,  discharges  its  waters  into  the  gulf 
of  Scindi,  on  the  eastern  border,  and  nearly  at  the  ex- 
tremity, or  bottom  of  the  Arabian  Gulf. 

"The  tide  in  the  Indus/'  says  Mr.  Rennell,  "  is 
perceptible  at  about  sixty-five  miles  above  its  mouthy 
according  to  the  information  of  Mr.  Cullender,  who 
resided  a  considerable  time  at  Tatta,  near  the  head  of 
the  delta  of  the  Indus."* 

This,  we  have  reason  to  believe,  is  true  ;  for  it  is 
said  that  the  Red  Rea.  in  about  the  same  parallel  of 
latitude,  does  not  rise  one  foot  perpendicular  in  the 
middle  of  the  sea. 

"  The  rise  of  the  tide,  at  new  and  full  moon,  is 
about  three  feet  and  a  half  at  Suez,"  (here  the  waters 
are  driven  into  a  contracted  part  of  the  sea,  at  its  ex- 
tremity, and  compressed  ;  consequently  raised  higher 
than  in  the  open  sea,  where  it  is  broader.)  *<  but  less 
than  one  foot  in  the  mid  le  part  of  the  Red  Sea.  At 
the  entrance  it  is  four  feet."f 

Here  too  the  tide  waters  of  the  sea  are  again  com- 
pressed, at  the  straits  of  BabelniMndel,  or  between  the 
coast  of  Africa  and  Arabia.  So  that  if  we  admit  the 

*  Rennell's  Map,  p.  xxiv.        f  Kennell's  Herodotus,  p.  476. 
37 


fttt 

tide  to  rise  to  the  mean  height  of  the  two  extremes,  it 
would  give  only  eighteen  inches,  or  two  feet, 

Admitting  it  to  be  nearly  the  same  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Indus,  we  cannot  suppose  that  the  tide  had  any  in- 
fluence in  checking  the  current  of  that  river,  indeed, 
if  Mr.  RennelVs  account  be  true,  the  tide,  at  present, 
does  not  extend  up  so  high  as  the  head  of  the  delta,  or 
the  ancient  mouth  of  the  river,  by  fifty  miles  :  for  the 
delta  being  one  hundred  and  fifteen  miles  from  its  head 
to  its  extremity,  and  the  tide  being  perceptible  only 
sixty-five  miles  from,  or  above  its  mouth,  leaves  a  dif- 
ference of  fifty  miles. 

If,  in  this  instance,  Mr.  Rennell  meant  that  the 
tide  was  only  perceptible,  at  the  distance  of  sixty-five 
miles  above  the  original  or  ancient  mouth  of  the  Indus, 
it  would  make  some  difference.  But  this,  1  have  rea- 
son to  believe,  he  did  not,  from  what  he  says  of  the 
Ganges. 

"  In  the  Ganges  the  tides  are  perceptible  at  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  miles  up  ."* 

Now  the  head  of  the  delta  of  the  Ganges  being  two 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  from  the  sea,f  gives  an  ex- 
cess of  the  tides  above  the  head  of  the  delta,  or- 
ancient  mouth  of  the  river,  equal  to  twenty  miles, 
which  is  highly  probable,  from  the  known  height  to 
Which  the  tide  rises  in  those  seas.  This  being  the 
case,  it  must  appear  evident,  that  the  tides  had  but  lit- 
tie  or  no  influence,  in  checking  the  currents  of  those 

*  Kennell's  Map  of  Hindostan,  page  xxiv.         f  Do,  page  358, 


S83 

large  rivers.  Consequently  the  alluvion,  which  wai 
held  suspended  in  their  waters,  was  propelled  to  some 
distance  beyond  the  month  of  the  rivers  into  the  gulf  or 
sea ;  and  as  the  currents  of  the  rivers  were  slackened, 
the  alluvion  was  deposited  **  hy  the  mere  action  of 
gravity/' 

Here  was  the  commencement  of  those  deltas  which, 
like  that  of  the  Po,  were  for  ages  scarcely  perceptible. 
But  as  the  beds  of  these  rivers  were  elevated  and  ex- 
tended, the  currents  were  still  more  retarded,  and 
banks  were  formed  and  extended  at  their  sides. 

Subsequently,  on  the  occurrence  of  an  unusual  high 
tide,  opposing  and  elevating  the  current  of  the  river, 
it  bursts  its  natural  bounds,  and  makes  an  irruption 
through  its  banks,  thus  causing  lateral  branches,  and 
carrying  the  alluvion  still  farther  on,  and  in  different 
directions.  On  the  subsidence  of  the  waters,  the  sands 
are  exposed  to  the  operations  of  the  rains  and  winds, 
which  in  some  instances  have,  iu  the  course  of  time, 
with  the  assistance  of  alluvial  deposites  from  the  river, 
filled  up  the  canals  or  lateral  branches.  At  a  subse- 
quent period,  and  on  a  like  occasion,  other  breaches, 
or  irruptions  are  made  through  the  banks,  and  new 
branches  are  formed.  In  this  way  the  work  gradual- 
ly  goes  on,  until  these  new  formed  grounds,  in  time, 
become  habitable.  On  being  located,  for  the  conve- 
nience of  fishing  or  trade,  and  perhaps  both,  the  inha- 
bitants commence  the  operation  of  dyking,  with  a  view 
to  secure  themselves  from  the  inroads  of  the  sea,  or  the 
overflowing  of  the  river,  and  every  instance  of  this 


kind  is  the  cause  of  an  obstruction  to  the  winds,  and 
forms  a  nucleus,  around  which  the  dust  and  sand,  which 
are  wafted  over  these  districts,  are  deposited,  elevating 
and  extending  the  ground,  and  thus,  annually  encroach- 
ing on  the  amcient  limits  of  the  sea. 

That  this  has  been,  in  part,  the  nature  and  progress 
of  the  formation  of  those  deltas,  there  can  be  no  doubt; 
for  they  have  been,  from  the  earliest  periods  of  time, 
and  are  still,  inhabited  ;  for  Mr.  Rennell  observes, 
when  describing  certain  tides,  or  irruptions  of  the  sea 
in  those  parts,  which  rush  in  with  great  violence,  that 
the  people,  inhabiting  the  parts  of  the  delta  most  ex- 
posed, are  under  the  necessity  of  repairing,  with  their 
families,  immediately  to  boats  kept  for  that  purpose, 
and  in  which  they  are  compelled  to  stay,  until  the  sub- 
sidence of  the  waters.  Those  who  are  so  unfortunate, 
as  not  to  secure  their  safety  in  boats,  from  the  dreadful 
violence  of  these  irruptions,  called  by  the  natives  Bore, 
are  inevitably  swept  away  and  perish.* 

But  neither  the  alluvion  brought  down  by  those  ri- 
vers, nor  the  labours  of  man  can  be  considered  in  any 
other  light,  than  as  having  contributed,  in  part,  to  the 
formation  and  extension  of  those  deltas. 

Another  more  powerful  auxiliary  presents  itself,  as 
having  afforded  its  constant  aid,  in  the  accomplishment 

*  See  Rennell's  Map  of  Hindostan,  page  229,  on  the  sudden 
rise  ol  the  tide-  at  the  Indus  ;  in  the  gulf  of  Cambray  and  Cutch, 
and  also  at  the  Ganges. 


285 

of  this  great  work — I  mean  the  great  and  extensive  de- 
serts, in  the  neighbourhood  of  these  rivers. 

*<  The  province  of  Scindy,"  says  Mr.  Rennell,  "  in 
many  particulars  of  soil  and  climate,  and  in  the  general 
appearance  of  its  surface,  resembles  Egypt :  the  lowest 
part  of  it  being  composed  of  rich  vegetable  mould,  and 
extended  into  a  wide  delta;  while  the  upper  part  is  a 
narrow  slip  of  country,  confined  on  the  Persian  side  by 
a  ridge,  or  ridges  of  mountains,  and  on  the  other  by  a 
sandy  desert." 

Again,  •- Owing  to  this,  (the  want  of  rain,)  and  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  sandy  deserts,  which  bound  it 
on  the  east ;  and  not  far  removed  from  it  on  the  north 
west;  the  heats  are  so  violent,  and  the  winds  from 
those  quarters  so  pernicious,  that  the  houses  are  so 
constructed,  as  to  be  occasionally  ventilated,  by  means 
of  apertures  on  the  tops  of  them,  resembling  the  fun- 
nels of  small  chimneys."* 

Further,  he  says,  "  JL  sandy  desert  bounds  Scindy 
on  the  east,  and  extends  the  whole  way  from  the  terri- 
tory of  Cutch,  to  the  confines  of  Moulta  ;  being  near 
five  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length,  and  from  one 
hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  wide.^\ 

If  we  take  into  view  the  situation  of  these  barren 
deserts,  rendered  still  more  sterile  by  the  intensity  of 
a  vertical  sun,  that  blasts  every  effort  of  vegetation  up- 
on these  oceans  of  sand  ;  and  their  exposure  to  the  vio- 
lence of  the  eastern  Monsoons,  which  are,  for  more 

*  Rennell's  Map,  page  182.  f  Do.  page  183. 


2S& 

than  half  the  year,  sweeping  over  these  heated  wastes, 
and  raising  the  sand  in  clouds,  and  bearing  it  across 
the  gulf  of  Scindy,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  need 
we  question  the  sources  from  which  the  materials  were 
derived  to  form  those  deltas  ? 

If  we  add  to  this  the  labours  of  man,  upon  these 
new  forming  districts,  in  dyking,  and  raising  mounds, 
or  oilier  obstructions  to  the  winds  thus  charged,  need 
we,  or  can  we  pretend,  that  the  alluvion  of  rivers  is 
the  source  by  which  these  deltas  were  formed  and  ex- 
tended, and  that  too  in  an  increased  ratio  annually  ? 
I  presume  not,  and  for  a  very  obvious  reason  :  Mr. 
Rennell  observes,  that  "The  mean  rate  of  motion  of 
the  Ganges,  is  less  than  throe  miles  an  hour  in  the  dry 
months."*  That  of  the  Indus,  and  also  the  Booram- 
pooter,f  is  nearly  the  same. 

This,  it  must  appear  evident,  is  by  no  means  suffi- 
cient to  bear  up  and  convey  sand  to  any  considerable 
distance.  And  as  it  is  but  once  a  year,  and  that, 
*<  during  the  wet  season,  and  whilst  the  waters  are 
draining  off  from  the  in-undated  lands/'  the  cur-* 
rents  are  accelerated  in  any  considerable  degree,  we 
may  reasonably  conclude,  that  the  alluvion  derived 
from  this  source  is  comparatively  small,  to  that  which 
is  supplied  from  the  other  two  sources,  (viz.)  the  direct 
or  indirect  labours  of  man,  and  the  operations  of  winds, 
&c.  on  the  cultivated  grounds,  and  deserts,  in  the  vici- 
nity of  deltas. 

*  Rennell's  Map,  p.  34-0.  t  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1781. 


287 

OD  this  point  I  am  again  strongly  supported  by  the 
remarks  of  Air;  Rennell,  who,  in  speaking  of  this 
subject,  says  : 

"  And  hence  it  may  be  supposed,  that  the  state  of  a 
delta,  is  that  of  an  iiu perfectly  formed  country,  aud 
that  the  progress  of  matters  towards  completion,  is, 
that  of  the  river  forming  itself  into  one  channel." 

66  That  is,  from  a,  mud  bank,  it  becomes  a  marsh  ; 
then  a  field  intersected  by  drains,  and  deeply  inundat- 
ed, at  particular  periods  ;  and  finally  a  firm  field,  sub- 
ject to  slight  inundation  <.  but  without  any  natural  de- 
rivations from  the  river."* 

From  whence  then,  I  would  ask,  are  the  materials 
derived,  that  continue  to  elevate  the  delta,  in  some  in- 
stances, far  above  the  overflowing  or  inundations  of 
the  river?  From  the  same  sources,  that  have  con- 
tinued to  yield  their  materials  from  the  commencement 
of  the  formation  of  a  delta,  and  will  continue  so  to  do 
until  their  ultimate  completion. 

*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  page  5H. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 

IN  the  next  place,  I  shall  proceed  to  examine  the 
clelta  of  the  Nile.  The  land  which,  from  a  marsh, 
became  the  birth-place  of  emperours  and  kings,  whose 
ephemeral  sway  was  marked  with  despotick  rule; 
and  under  whose  reign,  millions  of  vassal  subjects 
dragged  a  miserable  existence. — That  land,  on  the 
surface  of  which,  numerous  and  splendid  cities  have 
been  reared,  whose  sumptuous  palaces  and  temples, 
with  their  gorgeous  summits,  were,  from  afar,  seen 
towering  in  the  air — Whose  sculptured  walls,  and 
massy  columns,  were  richly  wrought  to  glut  the  insa- 
tiable pride  and  pageantry  of  man. — That  soil,  on 
which  fostered  genius  shed  her  choicest  gifts. — That 
emporium  of  the  arts — that  seat  of  science,  whence 
Greece  and  Rome  derived  their  boasted  wisdom.* — 
That — once  the  wonder  of  the  world. 

But  this  has  since  become  the  land,  over  which  the 
frantick  genius  of  war  hath  spread  her  baleful  influence, 

*  See  Herodotus,  Diodorus,  Shaw,  and  others 


jy& 


289 

and  into  its  bosom  poured  her  sanguinarv  hordes. — Its 
cities  were  destroyed. — Its  temples  and  palaces  de  o- 
lished. — Its  monuments,  laid  prostrate.  —  Its  thrones, 
where  once  the  golden  sceptre  swayed,  erased.  —  Its 
subjects  left  to  mingle  with  the  dust. — Its  arts  fled — 
Its  science  languished,  and  became  extinct. — And 
now — but  little  left  to  greet  the  eye,  sa\e  an  extended 
plain  of  mouldering  ruins — a  scene  of  awe  and  desola- 
tion. 

Thus,  it  remains — an  object  of  eager  gaze  to  the 
anxious  traveller. — The  burden  of  the  poet's  strains. 
The  theme  of  historians  —and  still  the  wonder  of  asto- 
nished man. 

Such  has  been,  and  such  is  now,  the  delta  of  the 
Nile,  which  has  been  considered,  by  almost  every 
writer,  tha£  I  can  find,  as  exclusively  the  gift  of  that 
almost  peerless  stream. 

While  I  revere  the  memory  of  the  numerous  au- 
thors who  have  written  on  this  subject,  from  Strabo  to 
the  present  time,  1  cannot  help  expres  ing  my  sur- 
prise, that  they  should  have,  almost  uniformly,  adopted 
the  same  opinion,  as  to  the  formation  of  that  delta, 
whilst  there  existed  so  many  facts,  staring  each  of 
them  in  the  face,  calculated  at  least  to  weaken  or  ren- 
der doubtful  their  opinions,  if  not  tantamount  to  an 
absolute  refutation  of  them. 

That  I  should  presume  to  question  the  opinions  of 
men  of  such  high  antiquity,  and  established  reputation, 
may  seem  the  result  of  obstinacy  and  scepticism  ;  op 
an  instance  of  extreme  heresy.  But  I  trunt  and  lioye. 

38 


290 

for  a  more  favourable  opinion,  when  all  the  facts  are 
fairly  stated  and  duly  considered. 

The  first  thing  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  in  re- 
lation to  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  is  the  original  state  of 
that  district,  now  occupied  by  the  delta ;  and  the  an- 
cient mouth,  or  point  at  which  that  river  originally 
mingled  its  waters  with  those  of  the  Mediterranean 
sea. 

It  seems  that  Herodotus  learnt  from  the  Egyptians 
that  Menes  was  their  first  king ;  and  that  in  his  time, 
all  J£gypt,  except  the  country  of  Thebes,  was  one  con- 
tinued marsh.  And  that  no  part  of  the  present  land 
then  appeared  below  the  lake  of  Myris.* 

From  this  circumstance,  without  doubt,  Herodotus 
was  inclined  to  believe  that  the  whole  of  lower  .Egypt, 
or  at  least  the  part  occupied  by  the  delta,  was  once  an 
arm  of  the  sea.f 

It  seems  that  Diodorus  Siculus,  was  of  the  same 
opinion,  as  were  also  Pliny,$  Volney^  and  Dr. 
Shaw,  ||  And  when  all  the  circumstances  which  I 
shall  endeavour  to  bring  into  view,  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration, it  will  appear  highly  probable  ;  and  also, 
that  at  the  period  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  "  the  whole 
of  Egypt,  except  the  province  of  Thebes,  was  one  ex* 
tended  marsh." 

*  Herodotus  Euterpe,  chap,  4. 

t  See  Herodotus  Euterpe",  chap.  10. 

|  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  lib-  2.  cap.  85. 

§  Volney's  Travels,  p  34. 

(I  Shaw's  Travels,  p.  330,  and  437 


291 

In  the  second  place,  it  becomes  necessary  to  examine 
the  rate  at  which  the  current  of  the  JSile  generally 
flows. 

On  this  subject,  neither  historians  nor  travellers  have 
been  sufficiently  explicit.  The  conclusion,  however, 
is,  that,  except  at  the  period  of  its  inundation,  its  cur- 
rent is  in  general  rather  sluggish.* 

M.  Volney  observes  that  in  sailing  up  the  Mile, 
"the  declivity  is  so  gentle,  that  the  water  does  not 
flow  faster  than  a  league  an  hour."f 

Mr.  Brown  says  that  "  Its  motion  is  even  slower 
than  the  Thames,  and  does  not  exceed  three  miles  an 
hour.^J 

We  are  not  to  conclude  from  this,  however,  that  the 
rate  of  its  motion  is  the  same,  generally,  throughout  its 
whole  course.  Nevertheless,  it  is  represented  as  be- 
ing clear  and  unmixed  with  alluvion,  except  during  its 
rapid  increase  and  elevation.  Mr.  Irwin  says  "  FOF 
a  league  or  more  from  the  bar,  (of  the  Nile)  the  water 
retains  its  crystal  hue  and  fresh  quality,  of  which  we 
convinced  ourselves  by  an  experiment."^ 

We  are  informed  by  travellers,  that  Abyssinia 
and  the  neighbouring  part  of  Africa,  are  inundated 

*  «  Who  that  beholds  thee,  Nile,  thus  gently  flow, 
With  scarce  a  wrinkle  on  thy  glassy  brow, 
Can  guess  thy  rage  when  rocks  resist  thy  force.*" — Lucan. 

t  Volney's  Travels,  page   13. 

\  Brown's  Travels,  page  63  to  66. 

§  Irwin's  Voyage  up  the  Red  Sea,  vol.  II,  page  99. 


292 

frith  rains  during  the  months  of  May,  June,  and 
Juh.* 

But  it  is  not  until  ahout  the  month  of  July,  that  any 
difference  is  perceivable  at  Cairo.  On  the  first  of  July, 
17 1 4,  for  instance,  the  water  of  the  Nile  was  raised 
two  inches.  It  continued  to  rise,  alternating,  however, 
from  two  to  eight,  until  the  17th,  when  its  rise  was  as 
bigh  as  fifteen  inches.  It  again  alternated,  from  the 
19th  to  the  26th,  between  fifteen  and  six  inches  per 
day.  From  the  27th  to  the  3 1st,  its  increase  was  ra- 
pid, from  ten  inches  to  forty-eight  per  day,  amounting 
in  all  to  a  little  more  than  fifteen  cubits. f 

Now  according  to  Denon's  account,  there  was  no  ap- 
pearance of  alluvion  until  the  17th  ;  for  he  says,  "  The 
Nile,  after  having  risen  for  some  time  at  the  daily  rate 
of  two  inches,  came  at  length  to  an  increase  of  a  foot 
each  day  ;  at  which  period,  the  water  began  to  be  mud- 
dy, which  appears  to  shew,  that  the  Nile,  in  its  course, 
traverses  some  large  lakes,  whose  limpid  waters  are 
forced  down  the  stream  by  the  torrents  of  rain,  from 
the  Abyssinian  mountains,  and  that  the  discolouration 
of  the  Nile  does  not  happen,  till  the  arrival  of  these 
last  in  Egypt."J 

*  It  is  said  to  continue  even  through  August,  and  that  it  re- 
quires three  weeks,  after  the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season, 
before  the  effects  of  these  rains  are  seen  at  the  plains  of  Egypt, 
Lab'i'%  History  of  Abyssinia. 

f  Hiaw's  Travels,  pa^e  43 1. 

\  Denou's  Travels,  page  19. 


293 

From  these  circumstances  we  may  infer  that,  al- 
though the  rains  continue  three  months  in  Abyssinia,  it 
is  only  during  about  two  months  that  the  rise  of  the  Nile 
is  rapid,  and  its  current  greatly  accelerated  ;  in  which 
time,  no  doubt,  great  quantities  of  alluvion  were 
brought  down  by  its  current,  and  deposited  at  its 
mouth. 

3rdly.  It  is  necessary  to  examine  the  tides  of  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  with  a  view  to  their  influence  on 
the  current  of  the  river. 

On  this  subject  there  seems  to  he  a  difference  of 
opinion.  Herodotus  mentions  the  ebbing  and  flowing 
of  the  tides  ;  which,  he  observes  "  may  be  seen  every 


Mr.  Renndl  says,  that  "the  wraters  of  the  North 
Atlantic  eternally  flow  into  the  Mediterranean."! 
This,  he  seems  to  suppose,  is  a  consequence  of  the 
Mediterranean  being  lower  than  that  of  the  Red  Sea. 
But  if  "  the  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic  eternally  flow 
into  the  Mediterranean,"  it  is  almost  impossible  that 
there  can  be  such  a  thing  as  an  ebbing  of  its  waters  : 
but  setting  the  question  of  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea 
and  Mediterranean  a^ide,  we  can  scarcely  conceive 
tint  the  evaporation  of  the  waters,  from  the  intensity 
of  heat,  in  those  regions,  can  so  far  exceed  the  quanti- 
ties of  water  poured  into  that  sea  on  all  sides,  as  to 
occasion  a  current  constantly  setting  in  from  the  Atlan- 

*  Po'ym  198. 

t  Rennell's  Herodotus,  page  4-76. 


tic  ecean.  Therefore  it  must  be  admitted  that,  since 
there  is  an  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  Atlantic  of  several 
feet  at  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  there  must  be  an  ebbing 
and  flowing  of  tides  in  the  Mediterranean.  Indeed  it  is, 
though  barely,  admitted  by  Mr.  Rennell,  who  says, 
u  It  is  a  common  idea,  that  there  are  no  tides  in  the 
Mediterranean.  Nor  do  they  indeed  rise,  in  any  part 
of  that  sea,  in  a  degree  sufficient  either  to  effect  the 
usual  purposes  of  laying  ships  on  shore  to  careen  ;  or 
even  in  many  places,  so  as  to  effect  the  senses  of  those, 
who  are  accustomed  to  view  the  ordinary  rise  and  fall 
of  tides,  on  the  coasts  of  the  ocean.  But  that  a  tide 
does  exist  is  certain  ;  and  that  it  rises  five  and  six  feet 
in  particular  places.  "* 

This  difference  is  owing  to  the  following  circum- 
stance. <  The  wave  of  tide,"  says  Mr.  Ren  n  ell,  v<is 
suddenly  opposed  in  front  by  the  eastern  coast  of  Tu- 
nis; and  also  compressed  laterally  by  the  island  of 

Sicily."f 

He  further  says,  that  "  Modern  observations  point 
out  a  rise  of  about  five  feet  at  Venice,"  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Adriatic  gulf,  "  but  only  twelve  or  thir- 
teen inches  at  Maples,  and  at  Euripus."} 

The  Marquis  de  Chabert,  during  the  time  of  his  re- 
sidence on  the  coast  of  Africa  in  17^6,  observed  that 
the  tides  rose  three  feet ;  but  the  marks  on  the  shore 

*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  page  647.    f  Do.  page  657. 
|  Do,  Do.  page  659. 


S95 

discovered  a  rise  of  five  (french)  feet,  at  the  highest 
tides.* 

M.  Volney  says  that  the  tide,  at  the  influx  of  the 
Nile,  rises  a  little  more  than  three  feet.f 

Admittiug  the  ordinary  height  of  the  tides,  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  to  be  two 
feet,  or  even  three,  we  cannot  suppose  that  it  would 
have  any  material  effect  in  checking  the  current  of  the 
Nile,  particularly  during  the  period  of  its  inundation, 
when  it  is  greatly  accelerated.  Hence  we  may  reaso- 
nably infer,  that  the  alluvion  brought  down  by  the 
Nile,  was  carried  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond 
its  mouth,  and  widely  diffused  in  that  ancient  gulf  or 
arm  of  the  sea,  and  constituted  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
formation  of  the  delta.  It  is  to  this  cause,  in  part, 
that  we  must  attribute  the  existence  of  an  extended 
marsh,  in  the  time  of  Menes. 

As  to  the  commencement  of  this  operation,  it  is, 
doubtless,  coeval  with  the  existence  of  the  world ;  or, 
at  least,  we  may  safely  date  it  from  the  period  at  which 
the  waters  first  subsided  from  off  the  face  of  the  earth, 
and  from  the  time  rivers  began  to  flow.  As  to  the 
nature  and  progress  of  its  formation,  it  differed  in  no 
material  circumstance  from  that  of  the  Po,  the  Arno, 
the  Indus,  the  Ganges,  or  that  of  any  other,  situated 
where  the  tides  do  not  rise  sufficiently  high,  to  check 
or  control  the  current  of  the  river. 

*  H  stoirede  1'Academie  des  Sciences,  1767. 
t  Volney's  Travels,  page  J37. 


296 

4thly.  I  shall  now  examine  the  effect  produced  by 
the  direct  and  indirect  labours  of  man,  in  the  formation 
and  extension  of  this  delta. 

The  point  at  wjiich  the  waters  of  the  Nile  first 
united  with  those  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  was  that 
at  which  the  greatest  quantity  of  alluvion  was  depo- 
sited, and,  of  course,  the  point  where  the  bed  of  the 
river  first  began  to  be  elevated.  On  the  subsidence  of 
the  annual  inundations  of  the  rivers,  its  banks  were,  in 
the  course  of  time,  gradually  elevated  and  extended 
on  its  borders.  As  soon  as  they  had  become  suffi- 
ciently so,  to  admit  of  cultivation  and  improvement, 
they  were  probably  located  by  the  first  inhabitants 

who  established  their  residence  in  that  region. 

o 

Where  this  point  was,  or  who  the  first  inhabitants 
were,  or  what  the  degree  of  progress  in  improvements 
and  civilization,  it  is  not  in  my  power  to  determine  ; 
nor  is  it  necessary,  or  essential  to  my  purpose,  in  the 
present  instance.  It  is  sufficient  to  know,  that  Menes 
or  Osiris,  was,  at  least  represented  to  be,  the  first 
king  who  reigned  in  Egypt ;  and  was,  perhaps,  the 
most  zealous  and  active,  in  improvements  of  every 
kind,  of  any  sovereign  that  may  have  preceded  him ; 
though  much  may  have  been  done  before  his  time,  as, 
according  to  Bishop  Clayton,  other  kings  had  reigned 
before  him  in  Egypt :  and  Diodorus  says,  that  Mem- 
phis, (which  was  founded  by  Mmes,}  was  not  built 
till  eight  generations  after  the  building  of  Thebes,  and 


297 

and  that  the  rise  of  Memphis,  was  the  downfall  of 
Thebes.* 

Be  this  as  it  may,  Menes  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
who  was  engaged  in  raising  mounds,  digging  canals,t 
and  actually  changing  the  course  of  the  Nile,:):  which 
formerly  flowed  along  at  the  foot  of  the  Lybian  moun- 
tains, and  which  I  shall  notice  in  the  sequel. 

This  constitutes  the  sera  from  which  we  ought,  pro- 
bably, to  date  the  commencement  of  the  formation  of 
the  delta,  and  also  the  point  at  which  it  began. 

Jlenes,  in  order  to  accomplish  the  above  object, 
caused  a  bank  to  be  constructed  at  the  distance  of  a 
hundred  stadia  (two  leagues  and  a  quarter)  from 
Memphis,  towards  the  south,  and  by  digging  a  new 
canal  through  the  valley,  between  the  Lybian  moun- 
tains and  those  on  the  Arabian  side,  diverted  th$ 
course  of  the  Nile. 

A  consequence  of  this  new  change  was  that,  not- 
withstanding the  great  height  to  which  the  embank- 
ments were  raised,  by  the  immense,  quantity  of  earth 
which  was  removed  to  form  a  channel  for  so  large  a 
river,  the  banks  were  subject,  at  every  inundation  of 
the  river,  to  irruptions  from  the  force  of  the  waters, 
which  caused  breaches  through  the  banks,  carrying 

*  Herodotus  Euterpe,  chap.  99. 

t  Thi>  was  carried  to  such  an  extent  in  the  time  of  Sesostris, 
that  the  Egyptians  laid  aside  the  using;  of  wheel  carriages,  which 
they  had  till  then  em  ployed.  Herodotus,  book  2. 

\  Herodotus  Euterpe,  chap.  99. 

39 


away  the  earth,  and  depositing  it  on  the  adjacent 
grounds  ;  thus  threatening  with  defeat,  the  very  object 
which  Menes  had  in  view,  viz.  the  preservation  of 
Memphis.  Hence  it  is,  that  they  were  annually  under 
the  necessity  of  fortifying  these  mounds  by  filling  up 
the  breaches,  and  keeping  them  in  repair.  Herodotus 
says,  "  Even  at  this  present  period,  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Persians,  this  artificial  channel  is  annu- 
ally repaired,  and  regularly  preserved.  If  the  river 
were  here  once  to  break,  its  banks,  the  whole  town  of 
Memphis  would  be  greatly  endangered.''* 

.Not  only  was  this  the  practice  long  before,  and  in 
the  time  of  Herodotus,  but  it  has  been  regularly  and 
necessarily  pursued,  from  his  time,  to  the  dovvniall  of 
Egypt,  and  even  to  the  present  time;  and  that  too, 
perhaps,  upon  every  inch  of  ground,  from  Memphis 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Canopic  branch. 

This  attention  was  annually  and  necessarily  in- 
creased :  for  as  the  prolongation  of  the  embankments 
Was  extended  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  into  the 
gulf  or  arm  of  the  sea,  the  descent  of  the  river  was  les- 
sened, its  current  checked,  and  its  bed  gradually  ele- 
vated by  the  deposition  of  alluvion,  as  at  the  Po,  the 
Indus,  &c.  Consequently,  in  proportion  as  the  bed  of 
the  river  was  elevated,  so  must  have  been  the  banks; 
for  as  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  water  flows  annu- 
ally, it  follows  that  the  banks,  unless  raised  in  pro- 
portion, must  be  overflowed,  and  torn  away. 

*  Herodotus  Euterpe,  chap.  99. 


299 

It  must  not  be  understood,  however,  that  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  bed  of  the  river  was  occasioned,  simply,  by 
the  deposition  of  the  alluvion  natural  to  the  current. 
We  are  now  to  take  into  view  the  enormous  quaiitity 
\vhich  is  supplied  indirectly  through  the  labours  of 
man  ;  as  the  offals  and  rubbish  of  every  kind  that 
daily  fall  into  it  from  Thebes,  and  other  cities  above, 
as  well  as  from  Memphis.  This  circa  instance  ought 
to  be  kept  in  view,  as  it  respects  all  the  cities,  that 
were  subsequently  built  on  the  borders  of  the  Nile; 
an:l  throughout  the  entire  extent  and  formation  of  the 
delta.  Thus,  from  the  check  opposed  to  the  current 
of  the  river,  the  elevation  of  its  bed,  the  annual  inun- 
dations, the  irruptions  through  its  banks,  the  digging 
of  canals,  the  cultivation  of  the  grounds,  thereby  ex- 
posing them  to  the  operations  of  the  winds,  which  are 
almost  constantly  raising  and  shifting  the  soil,  from 
one  place  to  another,  the  low  lands  adjacent  to  the 
river  were  gradually  filled  up,  and  new  districts 
formed  for  cultivation,  and  for  the  building  of  other 
cities  ;  which,  as  soon  as  commenced,  formed  another 
source  from  which  the  low  grounds  were  filled  up  and 
extended  by  the  direct  and  indirect  labours  of  man. 
That  is,  by  building  and  improving;  and  in  the  course 
of  time  pulling  down  and  rebuilding,  and  that  too 
through  a  series  of  ages. 

There  are  but  few  persons,  perhaps,  who  would 
imagine  that  any  material  difference  could  be  produced 
fro  n  this  cause.  But  it  must  be  recollected,  that 
almost  the  entire  quantity  of  materials  employed  in  the 


300 

building  of  those  cities,  was  brought  from  the  Lybian 
mountains,  and  from  those  of  the  Arabian  side,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Cosier,  on  the  Red  Sea.  The  granite 
from  the  former,  and  the  porphyry,  jasper,  and  verd 
antique  from  the  latter. 

Who  then  can  possibly  conceive  the  quantity  of 
materials  and  rubbish  supplied  by  the  city  of  Mem- 
phis alone,  which  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  furlongs 
in  circumference  ;  almost  equal  to  nineteen  miles,  or  a 
little  less  than  five  miles  square  ?  All  must  admit  that 
it  was  enormous  ;  and  when  we  consider  that,  accord- 
ing to  Baron  De  Tott's  account,  there  were  nine  thou- 
sand villages,  and  twelve  hundred  towns,  in  Egypt,* 
we  shall  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  the  direct  and  indi- 
rect labours  of  man,  have  had  a  great  and  powerful 
agency  in  this  stupendous  work. 

From  this  imperfect  view,  we  may  form  a  pretty 
correct  idea,  how  new  districts  were  formed  and  eleva- 
ted, and  the  land  extended,  until  the  Nile  was  divided 
into  two  branches,  and  the  formation  of  the  delta  com- 
menced, which,  as  it  increased,  was  cultivated  and  ex- 
tensively improved  by  the  building  of  large  cities. 
Since  that  time,  the  same  course  has  been  pursued, 
as  at  the  commencement ;  the  same  operations  conti- 
nued, and  the  same  rules  and  regulations  observed,  in 
relation  to  draining,  djking,  cutting  canals,  raising 
mounds  and  keeping  them  in  repair;  and  that  too, 

*  Baron  De  Tott,  p.  2— p  63. 


301 

through  a  Ions;  lapse  of  ages,  as  well  with  the  delta  as 
the  districts  on  the  opposite  borders  of  the  Nile. 

Dr.  Shaw,  who  has  been  as  particular  on  this  point 
as  almost  any  other  author,  has  endeavoured  to  prove 
and  that  too  by  a  diagram,  that  the  whol*  extent  of 
territory  which  Egypt  has,  gained,  in  the  course 
of  time,  is  almost  exclusively  the  result  of  the  alluvion 
brought  down  by  the  Nile  and  gradually  deposited. 
In  this,  the  circumstances  which  he  relates,  and  the 
arguments  which  he  has  advanced,  are  at  variance 
with  his  theory,  which,  under  existing  circumstances, 
all  the  ingenuity  and  sophistry  of  man  can  never 
establish. 

"  Let  the  annexed    figure  (says  Dr.   Shaw)  be  a 

section  of  this  valley,  with 
a  Niloscope  placed  in  that 
part  of  it,  where  the  Nile  af- 
terwards directed  its  stream. 
— For  about  the  space  of 
one  or  two  centuries  after 
the  deluge,  or  till  such  time  as  the  mud  brought  down 
by  the  inundation,  was  sufficiently  fixed  and  accumu- 
lated to  confine  the  river,  we  may  imagine  the  bottom 
of  this  valley  A  B,  (i.  e.  the  whole  land  of  Egypt)  to 
have  been  entirely  overflowed ;  or  else,  being  in  the 
nature  of  a  morass,  was  not  fit  to  be  either  cultivated, 
or  inhabited.  Egypt  therefore,  at  this  time,  was  in  a 
proper  condition  to  receive  the  assistance  of  Osiris, 
who  by  raising  mounds  and  collecting  the  icater  into 
a  proper  channel,  kept  the  river  from  stagnating,  and 


SOS 

thereby  prepared  the  land  for  that  culture  and  tillage 
which  he  is  supposed  to  have  invented. 

"  But  in  process  of  time,  the  annual  strata  would 
raise  the  country  as  high  as  C,  D.  Whereby  the 
ISile  would  not  only  be  sufficiently  confined  within  its 
own  banks,  but  the  superfluous  moisture,  also,  that 
was  left  by  the  inundation,  would  be  easily  drained  off. 

«  Agriculture  therefore,  and  husbandry,  would  have 
now  their  proper  encouragement ;  and  in  this  condi- 
tion we  may  conceive  the  country  to  have  been  at  the 
building  of  Thebes  ;  the  parts  where  Memphis  and 
Zoan  were  afterwards  founded,  having  not  yet  attain- 
ed a  sufficient  depth  of  soil  to  bring  down  a  colony  to 

till  it. 

* 

"  Some  centuries  after,  when  Memphis  and  other 
cities  of  the  lower  Egypt  were  built,  the  banks,  to- 
gether with  the  land  on  each  side  of  them  may  be 
supposed  to  be  raised  as  high  as  E,  F,  whereby  a 
still  greater  height  of  water  would  be  required  to  re- 
fresh them ;  which  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  was  six- 
teen cubits. 

"Li  this  manner  therefore,  it  may  be  presumed,  that 
the  foundation  of  the  land  of  Egypt  was  first  laid 
and  afterwards  augmented,  the  inundation  bringing 
along  with  it,  every  year,  an  addition  of  soil,  where- 
by, not  only  the  land  already  made  would  be  raised, 
but  the  soil  would  be  likewise  extended  to  the  very 
skirts  of  the  valley,  the  sea  gradually  excluded  and 
consequently  a  foundation  laid  for  new  plantations.^ 


303 

That  the  original  site,  on  which  both  Thebes  and 
Memphis  were  built,  was  such  as  has  b  en  represent- 
ed, there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  authority  which  we 
has  e.  for  the  gradual  increase  and  elevation  of  the  land 
at  those  places,  forbids  our  withholding  assent  to 
the  truth  of  the  reports  which  we  have  received  on 
that,  point.  Nay  more,  if  we  extend  our  views  back 
a  few  centuries  more,  our  imaginations  will  represent 
those  places  to  us  covered  at  all  times  with  water. 
And,  however  strange  and  absurd  the  idea  may  ap- 
pear, had  not  the  labours  of  man  been  introduced  to 
alter  or  defeat  the  plans  of  nature,  we  should  not  be- 
hold the  frightful  difference  that  is  now  presented  to 
view. 

We  might,  if  the  formation  of  the  alluvial  grounds 
depended  only  on  the  alluvion  of  the  river  for  its  in- 
crease, see  it  somewhat  elevated  and  greatly  extend- 
ed, as  in  many  places  ;  but  not  thrown  up  into  mounds 
and  high  banks,  suited  to  the  building  of  cities  and 
other  works. 

"  The  meeting  of  two  masses  of  fluid,  (says  Mr. 
Volney,)  produces  nothing  but  a  mixture,  from  which 
a  common  level  soon  results."  "  Running  waters 
level  much  more  than  they  heap  up."* 

With  a  view  to  the  better  understanding  of  this 
subject,  I  will  examine  some  of  the  conclusions  wrhich 
Dr.  ftiuur  has  drawn  from  these  premises. 

Volney's  Travels,  page  26. 


304 

"  That  Egypt  was  raised  and  augmented  in  this 
manner,  viz.  by  the  inundation  bringing  along  with 
it,  every  year  an  addifton  of  soil,  whereby  not  only 
the  land,  already  made,  would  be  raised,  but  the  soil 
would  be  likewise  extended  to  the  very  skirts  of  the 
Valley,  &c.  appears  from  several  circumstances.  For, 
whereas  the  soil  of  other  plain  countries  is  usually  of 
the  same  depth,  here  we  find  it  vary  in  proportion  to 
the  distance  from  the  river ;  being  sometimes  near 
the  banks  more  than  thirty  feet  high,  whilst  at  the  ut- 
most extremity  of  the  inundation,  viz.  at  the  skirts  of 
the  valley  and  next  to  the  hills,  it  is  not  the  quarter 
part  of  so  many  inches."* 

Now  the  waters  which  overflowed  the  valleys  or 
lands  adjacent  to  the  banks,  on  each  side  of  the  river, 
were  those  which  flowed  round  the  extremity  of  the 
banks,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  up  the  valleys  ; 
or  such  as  were  designedly  drawn  off  from  the  river, 
through  canals  constructed  for  the  purpose,!  into  t°e 
valleys,  with  the  express  intention  of  irrigating  the 
lands  and  profiting  by  the  alluvion. 

The  waters  thus  derived  direct  from  the  Nile,  and 
charged  with  their  full  quantity  of  alluvion,  naturally 
settled  first  upon  the  lowest  ground  ;  as  they  increas- 
ed they  became  deeper,  and  the  grounds  remained 
longer  submerged  than  the  more  elevated  lands  that  were 
inundated  but  a  short  time;  such  as  those  from  twenty 
to  thirty  feet  high,  and  such  as  were  but  slightly  over- 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  page  439.  f  Do.  page  441. 


309 

flowed.  Consequently  the  deeper  the  water,  thus 
charged  with  alluvion,  and  the  longer  it  remains  upon 
lauds  thus  inundated,  the  greater  must  be  the  quan- 
tity of  deposites,  and  the  increase  of  their  elevation. 
This  fact  is  too  palpable  to  need  any  comments. 

"  Yet  (says  Dr.  Shaw,)  here  we  find  it  vary  in. 
proportion  to  the  distance  from  the  river ;  being  some- 
times near  the  banks  more  than  thirty  feet  high,  whilst 
at  the  utmost  extremity  of  the  inundation,  it  is  not  a 
quarter  part  of  so  many  inches." 

These  facts  alone,  are  amply  sufficient  to  prove  that 
the  delta  of  the  Nile  and  the  plains  of  Egypt  were 
never  produced  by  the  alluvion  of  that  river.  If  any 
other  were  necessary,  the  following  is  no  less  con- 
clusive. 

"It  may  be  presumed,"  says  the  Dr.,  "  that  all  the 
cities  of  Egypt  icer*  originally  built  upon  artificial 
eminences,  raised  for  that  purpose."  Herodotus,  from 
whom  Dr.  Shaw  probably  derived  his  information, 
says,  "that  during  the  reign  of  Sabacus,  king  of  Ethi- 
opia, the  ground  on  which  the  cities  of  Egypt  stood, 
was  more  and  more  elevated  by  manual  labour:  and 
that,  although  they  were  somewhat  raised  under  the 
reign  of  Sesostris,  by  the  digging  canals,  they  became 
still  more  so,  under  the  Ethiopian."* 

Now  if  those  were  artificial  eminences,  they  could 
not  have  been  the  results  of  annual  deposites  of  alluvion. 
Further,  "  When  the  circumjacent  soil  came  to  be  so 

»  Euterpe,  pages  137  and  138. 

40 


306 

far  increased,  as  to  lie  nearly  upon  a  level  with  those 
cities,  the  inhabitants  were  then  obliged  to  mound  them 
round,  or  else  to  rebuild  them.  The  former  experi- 
ment seems  to  have  been  often  repeated  at  Memphis, 
the  want  whereof  hatli  been  the  reason  no  doubt,  why 
we  are  not  sure,  at  present,  even  of  the  place  where 
this  famous  city  was  founded.''* 

From  the  superficial  remarks  which  I  have  made  on 
the  current  of  the  Nile  and  its  alluvion  ;  and  also  the 
effects  of  the  tides  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  opposing 
this  current,  together  with  the  result  of  the  direct  and 
indirect  labours  of  man  in  the  formation  of  the  delta  of 
the  Nile,  and,  I  may  add,  the  plains  of  Egypt,  some 
general  ideas  may  be  formed  of  the  respective  agency 
of  each,  in  this  stupendous  work.  But  in  order  to 
have  a  more  comprehensive  view,  and  correct  ideas  of 
the  subject,  it  becomes  necessary  to  examine  lastly, 
the  operations  of  the  winds,  and  the  agency  which  they 
may  have  had  in  producing,  and  presenting  to  view 
these  phenomena  of  nature. 

The  winds,  that  mostly  prevail  in  those  countries, 
are  of  two  kinds — the  one  called  the  Levant  winds  ; 
the  other  the  Etesian  winds.  The  first  of  these  blow 
from  the  south  east  and  east,  varying  sometimes  to  the 
north  east,  and  blowing  with  great  violence.  Dr.  Shaw 
says  that  at  Algiers  the  east  winds  prevail  from  May 
to  September.! 

These  easterly  winds,  or  Levanters,  so  called,  when 
of  long  continuance,  sometimes  increase  with  such  vio- 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  page  439.  f  Do.  p.  218. 


307 

ience,  that  "  the  water  is  blown  away  to  such  a  de- 
gree, from  the  coast  of  Syria  and  Phcenice,  that  several 
ranges  of  rocks,  which  in  westerly  winds,  lie  conceal- 
ed, do  now  become  dry  and  leave  exposed  to  the  wa- 
ter fowl,  the  Urchins,  Limpets,  and  such  like  shell- 
fish, as  stick  upon  them."* 

He  further  says,  "  I  observed,  in  the  port  of  Lati- 
kea,  that  there  was  two  feet  less  of  water  whilst  these 
winds  raged,  than  afterwards  when  the  weather  was 
moderate,  and  the  winds  blew  softly  from  the  western 

quarter.'  f 

At  the  period  of  the  autumnal  equinox,  the  wind 
changes  to  the  north  and  west,  and  is  not  only  more 
frequent,  but  blows  stronger.  These  are  succeeded  by 
the  west  and  south  west  winds,  "  which  prevail  from 
November  to  February,'^  During  their  prevalence, 
as  in  almost  all  other  latitudes,  they  are  accompanied 
by  violent  gales,  such  as  are  described  by  travellers, 
when  whole  caravans  are  buried  up  in  crossing  the 
deserts. 

These  latter  winds  are  left  to  sweep,  uncontrolled, 
not  only  over  the  wide  expanse  of  the  Mediterranean, 
but  over  the  whole  northern  coast  of  Africa ;  the  de- 
serts of  Saharra,  Barca,  Saccara,  and  Lybia,  from  the 
dry  and  desolated  surfaces  of  which  they  are,  in  one 
place  or  other,  almost  constantly  driving  the  sand  in 
torrents,  still  farther  on  by  each  succeeding  blast. 

*  Show's  Travels,  p  361-  t  Do.  p.  362, 

|  Volney's  Travels,  page  200. 


308 

The  Levanters,  or  easterly  winds,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  driven  from  the  Persian  Gulf  across  the  deserts  of 
Arabia,  (which  in  extent,  says  M.  rolnry,  are  nearly 
equal  to  the  Mediterranean,)  and  also  across  the  Red 
Sea,  and  that  part  of  the  Arabian  desert,  which  lies 
between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile  ;  and  are  attended 
with  the  same  or  similar  circumstances,  as  with  the 
Etesian  winds. 

To  these  powerful  agents,  which  have  been  employ- 
ed, perhaps,  trom  the  commencement  of  time,  we  may 
look  for  the  principal  cause  of  the  great  change,  which 
has  been  made  at  the  mouth,  and  on  the  borders  of  the 
Nile. 

In  order,  more  fully  to  explain  the  nature  of  their 
operations,  and  the  result  of  their  agency,  we  will  sup- 
pose, (what  every  candid  mind,  on  a  careful  examina- 
tion, will  admit  to  be  true,)  that  the  whole  valley  of 
Egypt,  at  least  from  the  province  of  Thebes  to  the  pre- 
sent influx  of  the  Nile,  was  once,  actually,  a  gulf  or 
arm  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  and  under  the  influence 
of  the  flux  and  re-flux  of  the  same  tides,  which  prevail, 
on  the  same  meridian,  in  that  sea. 

This  being  the  case,  it  is  impossible  that  ''the 
whole  of  Egypt,  except  the  province  of  Thebes," 
could  have  been  made  one  extended  marsh,  from  the 
alluvion  only  of  that  river ;  and  that  for  the  following 
reasons.* 

*  On  this  subject  Lord  Valentia  observes,  (i  After  having 
passed  through  the  delta ;  after  having:  examined  its  whole  line  of 
sea  coast,  and  viewed  both  the  great  mouths  of  the  Nile,  I  confess 


309 

The  tide  of  the  Mediterranean,  though  moderate, 
operating,  ill  some  degree,  as  a  check  to  the  current  of 
the  Nile,  its  alluvion  would,  as  before,  be  deposited  in 
a  much  greater  quantity,  where  it  received  this  check, 
as  at  A,  than  at  any  point  below.  Consequently, 
when  the  alluvion  had  increased  by  the  deposition  of 
successive  strata,  so  far  as  to  appear  above  water  at  A, 
the  alluvion  at  B,  a  half  a  league,  or  league  below, 
where  the  water  is  deeper,  would  remain  as  much  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  gulf  or  bay,  as  the 
difference  in  the  depth  of  the  water  at  those  two  points. 

Sdly.  The  depth  of  the  water  in  the  Mediterranean, 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  Damietta  ri- 
ver, or  the  ancient  Phatmetic's  mouth,  is,  at  present, 
eleven  fathoms  in  depth,*  and  admitting  the  depth  of 
the  Nile,  below  Thebes,  to  have  been  originally  three 
fathoms,  and  the  descent  of  the  bottom  of  the  gulf,  from 
the  one  to  the  other,  to  have  been  in  a  direct  line,  there 
remains  a  difference  of  eight  fathoms.  If  at  about  half 
this  distance,  as  at  Memphis,  or  opposite  the  lake 
Mceris,  we  divide  the  depth  of  the  water,  which  is  five 
and  a  half  fathoms,  it  gives  a  difference  of  two  and  a 
half  fathoms,  in  the  depth  of  water  from  Thebes  to 
Memphis.  Under  these  circumstances,  and  without 

that  I  cannot  discover  a  single  argument  in  favour  of  the  idea, 
that  this  fertile  district  has  been  formed  by  the  mud  of  the  river. 
Fur  if,  in  ancient  times,  this  had  actually  been  the  case,  how  hap- 
pens it,  in  these  days,  the  same  cause  does  not  produce  the  same 
effect."— Valentia's  Travels,  vol.  Ill,  page  44-8. 
*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  pasje  487. 


310 

having  any  reference  to  the  influence  which  the  tides 
may  have  had,  in  checking  the  current  of  the  river, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  admit  that  as  much  alluvion  was 
deposited  at  Memphis  as  at  Thebes,  we  shall  find, 
that  when  the  successive  deposites  of  alluvion  were 
elevated  to  the  surface  of  the  water  at  Thebes,  it  would 
still  remain  two  and  a  half  fathoms,  or  fifteen  feet  be- 
low the  surface  at  Memphis.  And  that  when  it  had 
gained  the  height  of  two  and  a  half  fathoms  above  the 
river  at  Thebes,  it  would  only  have  arrived  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  at  Memphis. 

This  inequality  or  disproportion,  if  it  depended  on 
the  alluvion  of  the  Nile,  must  necessarily  have  existed. 
Consequently,  such  a  wide  extended  marsh,  as  is  said 
to  have  spread  over  all  Kgypt,  except  the  province  of 
Thebes  could  never  have  been  produced,  and  that 
upon  a  uniform  level,  as  the  very  name  implies,  by  the 
alluvion  brought  down  and  deposited  hy  the  Nile. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  the  materials  in  this  work 
must  have  been  derived,  in  part  from  another  source  : 
and  that,  too  in  a  quantity  sufficient  to  fill  up  the  dif- 
ference, whatever  it  might  have  been,  in  the  depth  of 
water  between  Thebes  and  Memphis,  or  any  other 
two  assumed  points,  in  order  to  produce  a  level  and 
widely  extended  marsh. 

These  materials  will  be  found  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  operation  of,  the  winds  on  the  desert  of 
Arabia,  which  lies  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile,  be- 
tween it  and  the  Red  sea,  and  the  deserts  of  Lybia 
and  Barca  on  the  west. 


311 

It  will,  perhaps,  be  said,  that  the  valley  or  space  on 
earh  side  of  the  river  below  Thebes  is  too  narrow  to 
afford  a  sufficient  quantity  of  materials  to  cause  any 
sensible  difference,  admitting  it  to  be  dry  and  barren. 

However  that  may  be,  it  is  said  that  the  distance 
from  the  river  to  the  hills  is  eighteen  miles  or  "  six 
leagues."  making  the  valley  twelve  leagues  in  breadth, 
or  thirty-six  mi  es,  sometimes  less  ;  and  this  too.  near- 
ly all  the  way  from  the  cataracts  "* 

Besides  this,  a  great  portion  of  the  Lybian  range  of 
mountains  in  this  part  of  the  country  are  represented 
as  barren,  and  in  a  rapid  state  of  decomposition.  "  I 
had  seen  (says  Mr.  Denon)  two  ranges  since  I  left 
Cairo,  without  having  been  able  to  risk  climbing  any 
one  of  them.  I  found  this,  as  I  had  supposed,  a  ruin 
of  nature,  formed  of  horizontal  and  regular  strata  of 
calcareous  stones  more  or  less  crumbling,  and  of  dif- 
ferent shades  of  whiteness,  divided  at  intervals  with 
large  mammillated  and  concentric  flints,  which  appear 
to  be  the  nuclei,  or,  as  it  were,  the  bones  of  this  vast 
chain,  and  seem  to  keep  it  together,  and  prevent  its 
total  destruction.  This  decomposition  is  daily  happen- 
ing by  the  impression  of  the  salt  air,  which  penetrates 
every  part  of  the  calcareous  surface,  decomposes  it, 
and  makes  it,  as  it  were,  dissolve  down  in  streams  of 
sand,  which  at  first  collected  in  heaps  at  the  foot  of 
the  rocks,  and  are  carried  away  by  the  winds,  and  en- 
croaching gradually  on  the  cultivated  plains  and  the 

*  bhaw's  Travels,  page  341. 


villages,  change  them  into  barrenness  and  desolation."* 
"  At  twelve  miles  distant  (says  Mr.  Bruce)  there 
is  a  ridge  of  mountains,  (near  Grabba)  of  no  con- 
siderable height,  perhaps  the  most  barren  in  the 
world." 

"  There  is  not  even  the  trace  of  any  living  crea- 
ture, neither  serpent,  lizard,  antelope,  or  ostrich,  the 
usual  inhabitant  of  the  most  dreary  deserts. "f 

In  speaking  of  the  mountains  between  the  Nile  and 
Red  Sea,  Mr.  Bruce  observes  : — 

"It  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  sights  I 
ever  saw.  The  former  mountains  were  of  considera- 
ble height,  without  a  tree  or  shrub,  or  blade  of  grass 
upon  them ;  but  these  now  before  us  had  all  the  ap- 
pearance, the  one  of  having  been  sprinkled  over  with 
Havana,  the  other  with  Brazil  snuff." f 

Hence  it  will  appear  that  not  only  the  plains  of  the 
valley,  but  the  mountains  themselves  were  yielding 
their  supplies  to  this  great  work.  For,  their  height 
not  being  great,  the  winds  were  wafted  up  their  sides 
and  over  their  summits,  loaded  with  sand,  to  replace 
the  wastes  of  the  plains  below. 

Having  pointed  out,  and  examined  the  sources  of 
these  supplies,  I  proceed  to  explain  the  effect  of  the 
winds,  and  the  results  of  their  operations,  in  promoting 

*  Denon's  Travels,  voP.  II.  page  2. 
t  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  I.  paa;e  175. 

|  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  I.  page  190.  See  also  AH  Bey's  Tra- 
vels, vol.  II.  page  136. 


318 

the  elevation  and  extension  of  the  plains  of  Egypt  u> 
their  present  limits. 

As  soon  as  the  newly  formed  lands  became  elevated 
above  the  surface  of  the  water,  sufficient  to  admit  of 
improvement,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  began  the 
work  of  digging  canals  or  drains,  raising  mounds  and 
dikes  for  the  purpose  of  improving  and  cultivating  the 
grounds,  every  work  so  raised  became,  in  a  degree,  an 
obstruction  to  the  winds  ;  and  all  the  space  contained 
within  their  limits,  a  depository  for  the  dust  and  sand 
which  were  wafted  by  the  winds  from  the  mountains 
and  across  the  plains,  or  from  the  deserts  ;  and  more 
particularly  so,  as  soon  as  vegetation  began  to  cover  the 
land  ;  for  every  plant  became  a  nucleus  around  which 
the  sand  had  collected  and  by  which  it  was  retained. 
The  date,  and  lofty  palm  trees,  when  arrived  to  a  suf- 
ficient height,  contributed  their  share  in  arresting, 
holding  fast,  and  screening  from  a  further  removal,  the 
sands  collected  at  their  roots,  and  beneath  their  branch- 
es. "The  plants,  (says  Mr.  Denon)  which  are  pro- 
duced, in  the  first  place,  by  the  new  land,  are  three  or 
four  kinds  of  sea  weeds,  round  which  the  sand  throws 
itself  up  in  heaps.  From  its  surface  they  spring  up 
afresh ;  and  subsequent  decay  furnishes  a  manure 
which  favours  the  vegetation  of  reeds.  These  reeds 
give  a  greater  elevation  and  a  greater  solidity  to  the 
soil.*" 

*  Denon's  Travels,  vol.  I.  page  169. 


This  drifting  of  the  sands  had  been  in  operation, 
probably,  from  the  beginning  of  time,  and  bad  con- 
tributed no  small  portion  to  the  elevation  of  tbe  bed, 
or  bottom  of  this  gulf  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
which  was  necessarily  so,  or  the  plains  of  Egypt,  had 
they  been  formed  of  the  alluvion  of  the  river  alone, 
would  probably  have  remained  to  this  day  as  barren  as 
a  slate  roof,  or  the  mountains  in  their  vicinity. 

The  alluvion  brought  down  by  the  Nile,  and  most 
other  rivers,  as  I  have  before  remarked,  is,  in  general 
composed  of  the  alluminous,  or  clayey  portion  of  the 
soil  above,  which,  being  light,  is  carried  to  a  great 
distance,  and,  when  deposited  in  a  sufficient  quantity, 
forms  a  slimy  mud,  such  as  that  of  the  Nile  is  des- 
cribed to  be,  and  which,  most  probably,  differs  but 
little  from  the  slimy  mud  which  is  collected  and  form- 
ed by  the  same  process,  in  all  our  docks  and  slips. 

'  The  mud,  or  alluvion  of  the  Nile  is  represented  as 
being  "•  of  an  exceedingly  light  nature,  and  feels  to 
the  touch  like  an  impalpable  powder."*  This  is  the 
character  of  clay  when  dry  ;  and  such  is  the  mud  of 
the  Nile,  that  when  deposited  in  low  places,  and  in  a 
sufficient  quantity ;  or  when  dug  out  of  the  canals  and  left 
exposed  to  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun ;  it  becomes 
hard,  (unless  tempered  with  sand,)  and  cracks  open, 
as  do  almost  all  lands  where  clay  predominates. 

Hence,  the  necessity,  of  its   being  tempered   with 
sand  to  render  it  productive  :  and  hence  it  is,   with- 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  page  432, 


315 

out  doubt,  that  tbe  Egyptians  are  sometimes  obliged  te 
temper  the  soil  by  bringing  sand  to  it.* 

But  to  return  to  the  subject :  as  soon  as  advances 
were  made  in  civil  architecture,  every  effort  had  a 
direct  tendency  to  promote  and  accelerate  the  eleva- 
tion and  extension  of  the  soil ;  since  every  house,  or 
binding,  whether  small  or  great,  became  an  obstruc- 
tion to  the  winds,  around  which,  the  sands,  during  the 
windy  seasons,  were  constantly  accumulating. 

Nothing  can  be  better  calculated  to  strengthen  this 
opinion,  and  enforce  the  truth  of  the  fact,  than  the  ob- 
servations of  M  Denon  respecting  Rosetta. 

"  Its  original  compass,"  he  says,  "  is  ascertained  by 
the  sand  banks,  by  which  it  is  covered  from  west  to 
south,  and  which  have  been  formed  by  the  walls  and 
towers  that  serve  as  a  nucleus  to  those  accumulated 
heaps  of  sand."f 

When  the  lands  had  become  sufficiently  elevated  to 
justify  the  founding  of  a  city  ;  the  first  step  to  be 
taken,  as  we  are  informed  by  Dr.  Shaw  and  others, 
was  the  raising  an  artificial  eminence  of  a  height  and 
extent  suited  to  the  purpose ;  and  also  a  mound 
around  the  whole,  to  secure  the  city  from  the  inunda- 
tions of  the  Nile.  The  city  thus  built,  though  se- 
cured from  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile,  and  annual 
deposites  of  alluvion,  was,  nevertheless  exposed  to 
the  drifting  sands  from  the  surrounding  plains  and  ad- 
jacent deserts.  But  it  may  be  presumed  that,  (as  iu 

*  Pocork's  Travels,      t  Denon's  Travel?,  vol.  I.  page  140. 


316 

many  other  cities  which  are  sometimes  inundated  with 
sand)  this  was  regularly  removed,  and  the  level  of  the 
primitive  foundation  of  the  city  preserved  ;  whilst  the 
neighbouring  lands  without  the  mounds  were  constant- 
ly gaining  in  height  by  the  annual  deposites  of  allu- 
vion, and  sand  brought  upon  them  by  the  winds. 

When  in  the  course  of  time,  the  lands  became  ele- 
vated to  a  height  equal  to  the  mounds,  and  the  city 
threatened  with  destruction,  by  an  inundation  over 
them,  the  inhabitants  were  obliged  to  demolish  the 
buildings,  and  raise  the  foundation  of  the  city,  and 
also  the  mounds,  in  order  to  secure  their  future  safety. 

This,  says  Dr.  Shaw,  "  seems  to  have  been  often 
repeated  at  Memphis,"  and  no  doubt  with  many  other 
cities  of  Egypt ;  but  in  particular  with  that  of  Bubas- 
tis.  "  When  this  city  was  rebuilt,  and  raised  higher, 
to  secure  it  from  the  inundation  ;  the  temple,  for  the 
beauty  of  it,  was  left  standing  in  its  primitive  situa- 
tion, and  being  therefore  much  lower  than  the  new 
buildings,  they  looked  down  upon  it  from  every  part 
of  the  city."* 

This  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  difficulties  with 
which  the  ancient  Egyptians  had  to  contend,  in  this 
respect,  and  one  that  is  calculated  to  prove  that  the 
formation  of  the  plains  of  Egypt,  and  also  the  delta, 
did  not  depend  so  much  upon  the  alluvion  of  the  Nile, 
as  upon  the  winds,  as  I  shall  endeavour  to  shew. 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  p.  439. 


317 

The  city  of  Bubastis  was  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  ancient  Pelusiac  branch,  at  the  distance 
of  about  fifty  miles  above  its  mouth,  and  about  the 
same  distance  below  Memphis  ;  and  also  in  nearly 
the  same  latitude  as  Menouf,  likewise  an  ancient  city 
situated  between  the  Sebbenitic  and  Canopic  branches. 
Hence,  a  considerable  way  below  the  head  of  the 
delta. 

From  these  circumstances,  and  the  slow  progress  of 
the  new  formation,  we  may  infer  that  the  founding  of 
the  city  of  Bubastis  was  of  a  much  more  recent  date 
than  that  of  Memphis,  and  other  cities  above.  Con- 
sequently, it  did  not  experience  so  many  revolutions 
and  changes  as  those  of  a  much  higher  antiquity* 
However  that  may  have  been,  we  have  no  knowledge, 
that  I  can  find,  that  Bubastis  was  ever  re-elevated  a 
second  time.*  Therefore  it  must  have  remained,  at 
its  downfall,  like  an  immense  excavation  in  a  plain,  or 
like  a  city  in  a  valley,  from  the  surrounding  heights  of 
which,  the  inhabitants  "  looked  down  upon  it  (the  tem- 
ple) from  every  part  of  the  city." 

Being  thus  formed  and  protected,  it  had  probably 
remained  secure  from  any  inroads  from  the  inundation 
of  the  Nile,  until  overthrown  by  hostile  bands,  or  other 
causes,  and  deserted  ;  when,  either  through  design,  or 
the  gradual  elevation  of  the  surrounding  plains,  the 

*  Herodotus,  in  speaking  of  the  temple,  says  that  its  situation 
had  never  been  altered,  although  every  other  part  of  the  city  had 
been  elevated.  Kuterpe,  p.  137,  138. 


318 

waters  of  the  Nile  were  let  into  it.  From  this  time, 
we  may  date  the  commencement  of  the  filling  up  of  the 
great  basin,  in  which  that  city  stood  ;  but  which,  how- 
ever, could  not,  it  is  presumed,  have  depended  on  the 
alluvion  of  the  Nile,  and  for  the  following  reasons  : 

When  the  waters  of  the  Nile  rested  upon  the  plains 
of  Egypt,  (and.it  was  only  during  an  inundation,  that 
this  could  happen,  and  the  waters  flow  into  the  city.) 
the  elevation  of  the  plains,  by  the  deposites  of  alluvion, 
would  increase  nearly  as  fast  as  that  of  the  basin  of 
Bubastis. 

Consequently,  it  must  have  still  remained  an  exca- 
vation or  depression,  below  the  plains  of  Egypt,  which 
is  not  the  case.  On  the  contrary,  it  presents  a  level 
plain  of  sand,  beneath  the  surface  of  which,  perhaps, 
every  vestige  of  the  city  is  buried  so  deep,  that  who- 
ever wishes  to  contemplate  or  examine  its  ruins,  and 
in  particular  its  temple,  will  probably  have  to  dig  to 
the  depth  of  thirty  or  forty  feet  below  the  present  sur- 
face of  the  earth. 

Could  we  be  made  acquainted  with  the  regular  gra- 
dation and  succession  of  events,  from  the  building  of 
Thebes,  to  the  downfall  of  Egypt ;  numerous  other  in- 
stances, and  much  more  in  point,  would  probably  pre- 
sent themselves,  to  prove  that  the  winds,  by  transport- 
ing the  sands  from  the  deserts,  have  been  the  principal 
agents  in  filling  up,  and  extending  the  plains  in  the 
valley  of  Egypt.  But  enough  still  remains  on  the 
faithful  pages  of  history,  to  convince  the  most  scep- 
tical, of  the  truth  of  this  fact. 


319 

From  these  I  shall  select  a  few,  as  being  not  only 
favourable  to  my  views,  but  conclusive  in  themselves, 
of  the  truth  of  my  assertions. 

During  the  reign  of  Necos,*  (the  son  of  Psamme- 
tichus,)  he  commenced  the  cutting  of  a  canal,  leading 
from  the  Nile  to  the  gulf  of  Suez  ;  and  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  which,  under  Necos,  no  less  than  one  hundred 
thousand  Egyptians  perished.  It  was  afterwards  con- 
tinued by  Darius,  king  of  Persia;  and,  according  to  Di- 
odorus^  finished  by  Ptolemy,  the  second  of  that  name. 
This  canal  is  said,  by  Pliny,$  to  have  been  one  hun- 
dred feet  in  breadth,  by  thirty  in  depth.  Yet,  strange 
as  it  may  appear,  few  or  no  traces  of  it  are  now  to  b$ 
seen,  except  near  the  gulf  of  Suez,  where  it  termina- 
ted. 

That  it  has  been  filled  up  principally  by  sand,  we 
may  reasonably  infer,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  de- 
sert through  which  it  was  cut,  being  almost  entirely  a 
vast  plain  of  moving  sand.  Pliny  says,  that  unless 
there  are  reeds  stuck  in  the  ground  to  point  out  the 
course  or  direction,  across  the  desert,  the  way  could 
not  be  found,  because  the  wind  blows  up  the  sand,  and 
destroys  every  trace  of  footsteps. $ 

This  fact  is  corroborated  by  the  remarks  of  M. 
Sonini,  on  the  desert  of  Lybia.  "  There  no  road, 

*  Herodotus  Euterpe,  chap.  158. 

Diodorus,  lib.  i.  chap.  3. 
f  Pliny,  lib.  vi.  chap.  29. 
$  Pliny,  lib.  vi.  chap.  29.     See  also  Rennell's  Herod,  p.  453. 


320 

no  path  remains  to  guide  the  traveller's  course ;  the 
impressions  of  his  footsteps  are  effaced  almost  as  soon 
as  made,  and  billows  of  sand,  raised  by  the  impetuous 
winds,  sometimes  swallow  him  up."* 

Another  canal,  called  Trajan's,  was  cut,  leading 
from  the  Nile,  near  Cairo,  to  the  gulf  of  Suez  ;  and 
also  another,  said  to  have  been  dug  by  Omar,  still  fur- 
ther down  the  river.  These  are  all  filled  up,  and 
have  disappeared  ;  and  that  too,  so  far  in  the  time  of 
Cleopatra,  that  her  ships  were  dragged  across  the  isth- 
mus by  land.f 

The  ancient  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  on  which 
stood  the  city  of  Bubastis,  has  long  since  been  de- 
serted by  its  stream,  except  during  the  height  of  the 
inundation  of  the  Nile,  some  water  flows  in  the  slight 
depression  which  marks  its  former  course.  Several 
others,  of  smaller  magnitude,  have  also  disappeared, 
and  no  traces  of  them  left.  Mr.  Volney  says,  "  the 
canals  which  conveyed  these  (waters)  were  destroyed  ; 
for  in  this  shifting  soil,  they  are  rapidly  choaked  up, 
both  by  the  action  of  the  winds,  and  by  the  cavalry  of 
the  Bedouin  Arabs.??J  But  the  most  important  instance 
in  this  view,  is  that  of  the  ancient  bed,  in  which  the 
Nile  flowed  at  the  foot  of  the  Lybian  range,  before  the 
time  of  Menes. 

This  channel,  in  which  the  whole  body  of  the  Nile 
once  flowed,  is  nearly  filled  up  to  a  level  with  its 

*  Sonini's  Travels,  vol.  2.  p.  128. 
t  See  Life  of  Anthony. 
|  Volney's  Travels,  p.  135. 


banks,  although  nearly  one  thousand  yards  in  breadth  ; 
and  that  too  without  much  assistance  from  the  alluvion 
of  the  Nile. 

On  this  subject,  Mr.  Rennell  observes  :  "  A  proof 
of  the  length  of  time,  required  to  fill  up  such  a  channel, 
(if  ever  it  be  completed  at  all)  is,  that  the  deserted  bed 
just  mentioned,  remains  visible,  although  the  change 
happened  before  the  foundation  of  Memphis.  It  must 
however  be  considered,  that  the  mound,  by  preventing 
the  free  access  of  the  Nile  water,  charged  with  its 
inud,  has  doubtless  retarded  the  operation  in  this  in- 
stance. "# 

The  mound,  of  which  Mr.  'Rennell  speaks,  is  that  I 
presume,  which  was  raised  by  Menes  to  turn  the  course 
of  the  Nile.  If  so,  we  can  scarcely  suppose,  that  there 
was  any  access  of  the  waters  of  the  Nile  into  its  an- 
cient bed,  in  that  direction,  much  less  a  free  access; 
for  had  the  waters  been  suffered  to  flow  through,  or 
over  that  mound,  in  any  degree,  it  would  ultimately  have 
made  a  breach  through  it,  and  defeated  every  purpose 
that  was  intended.  Consequently,  we  may  reasonably 
conclude,  that  but  very  little  aid  was  derived  from  that 
source,  in  filling  up  the  old  channel,  or,  in  fact,  from 
any  other,  by  deposites  of  alluvion  ;  for  he  says,  (page 
5Q±J  with  respect  to  the  level  of  the  sand  hills  through 
which  the  channels  run,  that  they  "  are  far  above  that 
of  the  present  river,  whose  bed  must  once  have  been  a 
vast  deal  lower  than  it  now  is.?5 

*  Rennell's  Herodotu?,  p.  5(<2. 


322 

Hence,  it  is  urged,  that  this  ancient  channel,  which 
stretches  along  from  south  to  north  on  the  very  borders 
of  the  deserts,  and  exposed  to  every  blast  that  sweeps 
over  their  surfaces,  has  be^n  tilled  up  by  the  sands 
brought  by  the  winds,  and  deposited  in  its  bed. 

The  lake  Mareotis  is  another  instance,  which  in 
point  of  analogy,  in  this  case,  differs  but  very  little. 
It  is  situated  still  further  from  the  Nile  to  the  west, 
and,  if  possible,  more  exposed  to  the  drifting  sands  of 
the  deserts,  particularly  those  of  the  violent  south- 
westerly gales.  This  lake,  in  the  time  of  Strabo, 
formed  an  expanse  of  thirty  miles.  It  is  "  now  filled 
up,  nearly  to  the  level  oT  the  country  ;  and  the  lakes 
by  Canopus  much  in  the  same  state."* 

That  the  sands  of  the  deserts  have  been  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  this,  as  well  as  the  elevation  and  exten- 
sion of  the  plains  of  Egypt,  we  may  conclude  from  an- 
other circumstance.  The  lands  on  the  west  side  of 
the  ancient  Sebennitic  branch,  or  Damietta  river,  are 
represented  as  being  more  elevated  and  more  perfectly 
formed,  than  the  land  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  delta, 
where  there  are  still  small  lakes,  and  low  grounds  not 
yet  filled  up. 

This  difference  is  attributed,  by  Mr.  Rennell,  to 
the  discharge  of  a  greater  quantity  of  water  by  the 
Nile  to  the  north  and  north  west,  than  towards  the 
eastern  part  of  the  delta  ;  consequently,  a  greater  de- 

*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  page  542. 


323 

position  of  alluvion,   which,  in  time,  has  produced  this 
eflect. 

But  I  should  impute  it  to  a  very  diflerent  cause. 
The  winds  that  sweep  over  these  trackless  regions  to 
the  west,  laden  with  sand,  naturally  let  fall,  or  depo- 
site  the  greatest  quantity  at  the  immediate  termination 
of  the  eastern  borders  of  the  deserts.  As  they  were 
carried  farther  on,  the  quantity  let  fall  would  lessen  in 
proportion  to  the  distance  passed  over  :  so  that,  by  the 
time  they  had  reached  the  eastern  side  of  the  delta, 
(which  at  its  base  is  sixty-one  miles  in  breadth,)  they 
would  have  deposited  nearly,  or  quite  all  the  sand  thus 
brought  from  the  deserts  on  the  west  ;  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  river  that  flows  into  the  sea  or  a  lake, 
deposites  its  alluvion  in  the  greatest  quantity  immedi- 
ately at  its  mouth,  and  gradually  diminishing  as  it  ad- 
vances into  the  sea.  And,  in  the  same  manner,  as  the 
sands  taken  up  from  the  land  by  the  winds,  and  car- 
ried over  a  bay  or  sea,  arc  let  fall  as  the  wind  loses 
its  force. 

Hence  it  is,  most  probably,  that  the  eastern  and 
lower  part  of  the  delta,  which  depends  mostly  on  the 
sands  brought  by  the  easterly  winds,  or  Levanters, 
across  the  Isthmus,  or  desert  lying  between  the  Nile 
and  the  Ked  Sea,  which  is  comparatively  narrow,  is 
lower  and  less  perfectly  formed,  than  the  districts  fur- 
ther west  and  nearer  the  deserts. 

From  this  view,  we  need  not  wonder  why  the  lands 
on  the  lower  and  western  part  of  Egypt,  should  be, 
more  perfectly  formed,  and  increase  faster,  than  those 


on  the  lower  and  eastern  part,  nor  by  what  means 
the  ancient  bed  of  the  Nile  has  been  filled  up,  and  also 
the  lake  of  Mareotis  ;  while  those  of  Brulos,  and  Men- 
zala  are  more  slowly  progressing  to  the  same,  or  a  si- 
milar state.  Neither  need  we  wonder  why  the  anci- 
ent Canopic  branch,  from  the  ancient  Milesian  wall, 
or  the  city  of  Deirut  to  the  sea  should  be  filled  up,  and 
a  new  channel  formed  ;  since,  besides  what  I  have 
stated,  Dr.  Pocolce  says,  that  "  all  the  country  here, 
(near  the  Canopic  branch,)  is  a  sandy  desert ;  it  might 
be  otherwise,  when  this  branch  of  the  Nile  annually 
overflowed,  but  there  being  a  ridge  of  low  sandy  hills 
running  from  north  to  south,  near  the  Nile,  it  is  possi- 
ble that  the  fruitful  soil  may  have  been  covered  with 
sand  blown  from  these  hills.  The  sand  changes  so 
often,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  the  way,  if  they 
had  not  built  eleven  pillars  across  the  plain,  which  I 
conjectured  might  be  about  half  a  mile  apart,  in  order 
to  direct  the  way,  which  otherwise  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  at  such  times,  as  the  wind  raises  great  clouds  of 
sandy  as  it  often  does  in  Egypt."* 

It  is,  almost  exclusively,  to  this  cause,  that  we  are 
to  look  for  the  extension  of  the  land  between  Alexan- 
dria and  the  Canopic  branch ;  for  Dr.  Shaw  observes, 
that  « there  are  few  or  no  tokens  of  the  Nile's  inunda- 
tion, to  be  met  with  from  Alexandria  to  Rosetta,  the 
whole  tract  appearing  to  have  been,  originally,  either 

*  Pocoke's  Travels,  vol.  I,  page  i3. 


a  continuation  of  the  sandy  coast  of  Lybia,  or   eke 
an  inland."* 

It  is  to  this  cause  that  many  parts  of  Egypt,  once 
rich  and  fertile,  have  already  become  barren  and  de- 
solate, whilst  the  whole  space  contained  within  its  li- 
mits, is  fast  progressing  towards  that  state,  in  which  its 
inhabitants  must  experience  all  the  horrours  of  a  per- 
petual famine  :f  for  the  lands  are  becoming  more  and 
more  elevated  and  extended,  and  when  no  longer  over- 
flowed by  the  Nile,  they  must  inevitably  become  as 
barren  and  unproductive,  as  the  neighbouring  deserts, 
which  are  now  supplying  the  means  of  their  des- 
truction. In  speaking  of  the  elevation  of  the  soil  of 
Egypt,  Mr.  Shaw  observes,  "  Thus  in  process  of  time, 
this  whole  country  may  be  raised  to  such  a  height,  that 
the  river  will  not  be  able  to  overflow  its  banks ;  and 
Egypt,  consequently,  from  being  the  most  fertile  will, 
for  want  of  the  annual  inundation,  become  one  of  the 
most  barren  parts  of  the  universe ."J 

"The  ancient  Egyptians,"  says  M.  Denon,  " speak 
of  this  encroachment  of  the  sand;;,  under  the  symbol  of 
the  mysterious  entrance  of  Typhon  into  the  bed  of  his 
sister-in-law  Isis  ;  an  incest  which  is  to  change  Egypt 
into  a  desert^  as  frightful  as  those  by  which  it  is  encom- 
passed ;  and  this  great  event  will  happen,  when  the 
Nile  finds  a  lower  level,  through  some  one  of  the  sur- 

*  .Shaw's  Travels,  pa»e  339. 

t  See  Herodotus  Euterpe,  Chap.  14.  f  Do.  page  441. 


326 

rounding  vallies,  than  the  bed  in  which  it  now  flows, 
and  which  is  constantly  getting  lower. '** 

From  Mr.  Bruce,  whose  veracity  can  scarcely  be 
doubted,  we  have  the  following  opinion  :  "  It  seems 
to  me,  that  soon,  the  greatest  part  of  Egypt,  on  the 
side  east  of  the  ^ile,  between  Aichmim  and  Cairo, 
will  be  a  desert ;  not  from  the  rising  of  the  ground  by 
the  mud,  as  is  supposed,  but  from  the  quantity  of  sand 
from  the  mountains,  which  covers  the  mould,  or  earth, 
several  feet  deep."f 

From  this  view,  it  must  appear  evident,  that  the 
operations  of  the  winds  on  the  deserts  that  skirt  the 
valley  of  Egypt,  both  on  the  east  and  the  west,  have 
been  the  principal  cause  by  which  both  the  plains  in 
the  valley  of  Egypt  and  its  delta  have  been  formed 
and  extended  to  their  present  limits.  That  these 
sources  have  existed,  and  the  same  process  has  been  in 
operation,  for  nearly  or  quite  four  thousand  years,  we 
have  the  most  unquestionable  authority ;  and  we  have 
the  same  reason  to  believe,  that  they  were  in  full  ope- 
ration for  nearly  two  thousand  years  before. 

That  they  still  exist,  and  are  threatening  the  entire 
expulsion  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  once  fertile  region, 
we  have  the  most  respectable  testimony  from  several 
travellers  who  have  visited  it,  and  from  whose  writings 
I  shall  take  the  liberty  of  transcribing  the  following 
extracts,  as  they  are  written  in  a  style  forcible  and  ex- 

*  Denon's  Travels,  vol.  F,  page  370- 
t  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  I,  page  105. 


317 

pressive,  of  the  calamitous  scenes  that  were  exhibited 
to  their  views. 

<l  From  Media,  or  Passage,"  says  Mr.  Bruce,  "  ouv 
road  lay  through  very  dry  sand,  to  avoid  which,  and 
seek  a  firmer  footing,  we  were  obliged  to  ride  up  to 
the  bellies  of  our  horses  in  the  sea.  If  the  wind  blows 
this  quantity  of  dust  or  sand  into  the  Mediterranean, 
it  is  no  wonder  the  mouths  of  the  branches  of  the  Nile 
are  choaked  up." 

«  All  Egypt  is  like  to  this  part  of  it,  full  of  deep  dust 
and  sand,  from  the  beginning  of  March  till  the  first  in- 
undation. It  is  this  fine  powder  and  sand,  raised  and 
loosened  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  want  of  dew,  and 
not  being  tied  fast,  as  it  were,  by  any  root  or  vegeta- 
tion, which  the  Nile  carries  off  with  it,  and  buries  in 
the  sea ;  and  which  many  ignorantly  suppose,  comes 
from  Abyssinia,  where  every  river  runs  in  a  bed  of 
rock."* 

Of  the  deserts  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile,  Sonini 
observes  :  "  Wretched  is  the  situation  of  those  who 
find  themselves  entangled  in  the  vast  sandy  deserts 
with  which  Egypt  is  bordered  ;  intrepidity  is  then  of 
no  avail  whatever ;  and  the  most  valiant  armies  may 
be  thus  overwhelmed  with  clouds  of  sand,  which  the 
wind  drives  impetuously  along,  may  be  stifled  to 
death,  and  perish  in  despair.  The  atmosphere  was 

*  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  20. 


328 

on  fire,  and  at  the  same  time  darkened  by  whirlwinds 
of  dust."f 

"  It  is  well  known,"  says  Mr.  Rennell,  "  that  tra- 
vellers differ  exceedingly,  in  their  reports  of  the  di- 
mensions of  the  great  pyramid,  owing  to  the  impossi- 
bility of  measuring  the  sides  of  its  base  ;  which  are,  in 
a  great  measure,  covered  with  heaps  of  sandy  drifted 
against  them  by  the  winds."$ 

In  speaking  of  the  changes  of  the  delta,  Mr.  Volney 
observes,  "  these  are  not  entirely  owing  to  the  Nile 
and  the  sea ;  the  wind  itself  is  a  powerful  agent, 
which  sometimes  choaks  up  the  canals,  and  drives 
back  the  river,  as  it  has  done  at  the  Canopic  branch. 
At  others,  it  amasses  the  sand,  and  buries  the  ruins  so 
that  their  very  remembrance  is  lost.  Mr.  Niebhur  re- 
lates a  remarkable  instance  of  this.  While  he  was  at 
Rosetta,  in  176&,  he  discovered,  by  chance,  under  the 
sandy  hillocks,  to  the  southward  of  that  city,  several 
ancient  ruins,  and  among  others,  twenty  fine  marble 
columns,  of  Grecian  workmanship,  without  being  able 
to  learn  any  tradition  even  of  the  name  of  the  place. 
This  appears  to  me  to  have  been  the  case  with  the 
whole  of  the  adjacent  desert.  This  tract,  formerly  in- 
tersected by  large  canals,  and  filled  with  towns,  pre- 
sents nothing  but  hillocks  of  a  yellowish  sand,  very 

t  Sonini's  Travels,  vol.  iif.  p.  32.     Also  page  24,  and  224,  on 
the  same  subject. 

J  Rennell's  Herod,  p.  360. 


329 

line,  which  the  wind  heaps  up  at  the  foot  of  every  ob- 
stacle, and  which  frequently  buries  the  palm  trees/'* 

In  describing  the  obelisks  at  the  entrance  of  Luxor, 
Mr.  Denon  observes,  "  the  two  obelisks  of  rose-co- 
loured granite,  are  still  seventy  feet  above  the  ground  ; 
and  to  judge  by  the  depth  to  which  the  figures  seem  to 
be  covered,  we  may  reckon  about  thirty  feet  mure  con- 
cealed from  the  eye,  making  in  all  one  hundred  feet 
for  the  heighth  of  these  monuments. "t 

In  their  march  towards  Keneh,  he  again  observes  : 
"  Our  progress  was  interrupted  by  those  particular 
winds,  which,  notwithstanding  the  sky  is  clear  and 
unclouded,  fill  the  air  with  so  much  sand,  that  it  is 
neither  day  nor  night  J 

In  describing  the  valley  formed  by  Mount  Kolsun, 
-and  the  Arabian  mountains,  he  says,  "  1  he  mouth  of 
this  valley,  towards  the  Nile,  exhibits  nothing  but  a 
dreary  plain,  the  only  cultivated  part  of  which,  is  a 
narrow  slip  of  land,  on  the  bank  of  the  river  ;  some 
vestiges  of  villages  overwhelmed  by  sand,  may  be  dis- 
covered, and  they  present  the  afflicting  sight  of  daily 
devastation  produced  by  the  continual  encroachment  of 
the  desert,  on  the  soil  inundated  with  sand." 

"  Nothing  is  so  melancholy  to  the  feelings,  as  to 
march  over  these  ruined  villages  ;  to  tread  under  foot 
the  roofs  of  the  houses,  and  the  tops  of  the  minerets ; 
and  to  think  that  these  weie  once  cultivated  fields, 

*VoIney's  Travels,  p.  24. 
t  D'-TioiT'.   !  ravels,  vol.  in.  p.  188. 
\  Denon's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  225. 

43 


330 

flourishing  towns,  and  the  habitations  of  man.  Every 
thing  living  has  disappeared ;  silence  is  within  and 
around  every  wall,  and  the  deserted  villages  are  like 
the  dead,  whose  skeletons  strike  with  horrour."* 

In  the  description  of  Oxyrinchus,  once  a  famous 
city  of  Egypt,  we  have  the  following  account :  "  Oxy- 
rinchus, once  a  metropolis  surrounded  by  a  fertile 
plain,  two  leagues  off  the  Lybian  range  of  hills,  has 
disappeared  beneath  the  sand  ;  and  the  new  town  has 
been  obliged  to  retreat  from  this  desolating  invasion, 
leaving  to  its  ravages  house  after  house,  and  the  inha- 
bitants must  at  last  be  driven  beyond  the  canal  Jusef, 
on  the  border  of  which  they  will  still  be  threatened."^ 

In  the  general  description  of  the  inundation  of  the 
sands  from  the  deserts,  this  author  gives  us  the  fol- 
lowing gloomy  and  distressing  picture. 

"  At  more  than  ten  leagues  from  Cairo,  we  disco- 
vered the  points  of  the  pyramids  piercing  the  horizon  5 
soon  after  we  saw  Mount  Katham,  and  opposite  to  it, 
the  chain  of  hills  which  separates  Egypt  from  Lybia, 
and  forms  a  barrier  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile  against 
the  sands  of  the  desert;  but  in  this  eternal  conflict 
between  this  destructive  scourge,  and  the  beneficent 
river,  the  inundation  of  sand  often  overwhelms  the 
country,  changes  its  fertility  to  barrenness,  drives  the 
labourer  from  his  house,  whose  walls  it  covers  up,  and 
leaves  no  other  mark  of  vegetable  life,  than  the  tops  of 

*  Denon,  vol.  i.  p.  191. 
t  Denon,  vol.  i.  p.  373. 


331 

a  few  palm  trees,  which  adds  still  more  to  the  dreary 
aspect  of  destruction."* 

To  this  amount  of  evidence  in  favour  of  the  opera- 
tion of  the  winds,  in  forming  the  plains  of  Egypt  and 
its  delta,  who,  when  he  considers  that  they  have  been 
the  same,  perhaps,  from  the  beginning  of  time,  will  at- 
tempt to  oppose  the  opinion,  or  pretend  that  the  allu- 
vion only  of  the  Nile,  has  been  the  cause  of  this  great 
and  wonderful  change  ? 

As  well,  almost,  might  we  contend  that  the  mould- 
ering remains  of  the  millions  of  inhabitants,  whose  bo- 
dies have  served  to  fatten  the  soil  of  Egypt  for  ages 
past,  have  been  equally  accessary  to  its  formation. 
For  it  is  not  even  necessary,  under  existing  circum- 
stances, that  the  alluvion  of  the  Nile  should  be  taken 
into  view,  or  that  a  river  should  flow,  to  produce  a  si- 
milar change. 

If  we  examine  the  borders  of  the  Red  Sea,  and 
their  relation  with  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  we  shall 
find  sufficient  proof  of  this  fact. 

The  Arabian  gulf  or  Red  Sea,  is  bounded  on  the 
west,  almost  from  one  extremity  to  the  other,  by  a  range 
of  mountains,  from  which,  strange  as  it  may  appear, 
not  a  river  is  discharged  into  this  sea,  from  the  straits 
of  Babel  Maudel  to  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.f  On  the 
western  side  of  this  sea,  the  water  is  in  general  deep 


*  Denon,  vol.  i.  p.  256. 

t  See  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  II.  page  115. 


332 

a  rocky  and  uneven  bottom,   owing,   probably,  to 
the  proximity  of  the  mountains. 

On  the  eastern  side  it  is  bounded  nearly  throughout 
its  whole  extent,  by  the  Arabian  deserts,  which  are  as 
barren,  and  unfit  for  the  habitation  of  man,  as  those  of 
any  other  in  the  known  world. 

The  shore  on  this  side  is  in  many  places  rocky,  and 
the  navigation  generally  difficult  and  dangerous,  on 
account  of  the  shallowness  of  the  water  and  the  innu- 
merable san  !  banks,  which  prevail  more  or  less,  from 
Mocha  to  the  northern  extremity  of  this  sea,  through- 
out the  whole  of  which  distance,  not  a  river,  it  is  be- 
lieved, is  known  to  flow  into  it.* 

It  is  supposed  by  many  that  this  sea  is  fast  retreat- 
ing, becoming  less,  or  filling  up  ;  or  in  other  words, 
the  land  is  encroaching  on  the  sea ;  and  under  existing 
circumstances  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  wondered  at. 
If  we  consider  the  immensely  extended  regions  over 
which  the  easterly  monsoons  are,  for  nearly  half  the 
year,  sweeping,  and  driving  the  sand  in  torrents  into 
this  sea,  we  shall  not  be  disposed  to  doubt  the  fact; 
nor  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  innumerable  sand  banks, 
and  shallowness  of  the  water,  all  along  its  eastern 
coast. 

To  what  extent  these  inroads  have  been  carried 
along  a  great  part  of  it,  I  have  no  means  of  ascer- 
taining. But  that  they  ^ire  constantly  progressing  and, 

•*  AH  Bey's  Travels,  vol.  II.  page  185. 


333 

most  probably,   have  been  ever  since  the  sea  existed; 
is  certain.* 

Mr.  liruce  says,  "  On  the  opposite,  or  Arabian 
side,  the  sea  coast  of  the  Hejas,  and  that  of  the  Te- 
lia ma,  are  all  moving  sands  ;  and  the  dry  winter  mon- 
soon from  the  south  east  blows  a  large  quantity  from 
the  deserts,  which  is  lodged  among  the  rocks  on  the 
Arabian  si  !e  of  the  gulf,  and  confined  there  by  the 
north  east,  OP  summer  monsoon,  which  is  in  a  contrary 
direction,  and  hinders  them  from  coming  over,  or  cir- 
culating towards  the  Egyptian  side."t 

From  this  source,  and  in  this  manner  the  Arabian 
deserts  are  constantly  advancing  into  that  sea. 

At  its  northern  extremity,  where  it  is  more  frequented 
and  better  known  by  travellers,  we  have  a  more  par- 
ticular account  of  the  changes  that  have  taken  place. 

In  speaking  of  the  winds  of  the  Arabian  deserts, 
Dr.  Shaie  observes,  "  Of  these  the  southerly  ones  are 
the  gentlest ;  though  those  in  other  directions  are  the 
most  frequent ;  and  by  blowing  over  a  vast  tract  of 
this  sandy  desert,  and  bearing  away  the  sandy  surface 
along  with  them,  make  continual  encroachments  upon, 
the  sea,  and  frequent  changes  upon  the  continent. — 
From  the  same  cause  likewise,  not  only  the  harbour  of 
Suez  is,  at  present  entirely  filled  up  ;  but  the  channel 
of  the  sea  which  extendeth  two  or  three  miles  further 
to  the  northward,  nay  once,  perhaps,  reached  as 

*  See  Rennell's  Herodotus,  p.  454  &  457. 

f  Bruce's  Travels,  second  edition,  vol.  If,  page  122. 


far  as  Adjeroute  (the  Heroopolis,  as  it  is  supposed  to 
be)  is  now  dry  at  half  ebb,  though  sometimes  the  sea 
floweth  here  near  the  heigth  of  a  fathom."* 

To  these  winds,  he  further  observes  may  be  attri- 
buted the  many  billows  and  mountains  of  sand  which 
are  scattered  all  over  those  deserts. 

In  a  voyage  of  discoveries  up  the  Red  sea  it  is  ob- 
served, "It  is  difficult  to  account  for  a  narrow  pas- 
sage between  two  lines  of  coral  rock  having  continued 
for  so  long  a  period  free  for  vessels,  without  having 
been  filled  up,  either  by  a  sea  constantly  breaking  on 
its  mouth,  after  having  passed  over  sand  banks,  or  by 
clouds  of  sand,  which  at  one  season  of  the  year  are 
borne  towards  it  from  the  desert."^ 

Also,  "  It  blew  a  gale  from  the  east  of  north  so 
that  the  mountains  were,  as  usual  on  such  occasions, 
concealed  from  our  view  by  clouds  of  sand."$ 

It  is  to  this  cause  that  many  places  on  the  coast  of 
Syria,  and  on  the  Mediterranean  sea  have  been  buried 
up,  and  every  trace  of  them  lost.  Yet  there  are  no 
rivers  by  which  alluvion  is  deposited,  to  produce  this 
change. 

Mr.  Bruce  observes  that  "  All  vestiges  of  old 
Tyre  are  effaced  ;§>  the  ports  of  Sidon,  Berout,  (Be- 
rytus)  Tripoli,  and  Latika,  (Laodicea  ad  Mare)  are 
filled  up  by  the  accretion  of  sand;  and  not  many 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  page  378, 

t  Valentia's  Travels,  vol.  II.  p.  286.         J  Do.  vol.  II.  p.  315. 

§  See  Shaw's  Travels,  page  331,  on  the  ancient  port  of  Tyre. 


335 

days  before  my  leaving  Sidon,*  M.  de  Clerambaut, 
consul  of  France,  shewed  me  the  pavements  of  the 
old  city  of  Sidon,  s^ven  and  a  half  feet  lower  than  the 
ground  on  which  the  present  city  stands,  and  con- 
siderably further  back  in  the  gardens,  near  mount 
Libauus."t 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  in  this  instance 
Air.  Bruce  attributes  the  cause  of  this  change  to  the 
operation  of  the  Etesian  winds  on  the  current  of  the 
Nile,  thereby  causing  it  to  flow  round  by  the  coast  of 
Egypt  and  Syria,  and  by  which  "  has  been  thrown  a 
great  quantity  of  mud,  gravel,  and  sand,  into  all  the 
ports  of  Syria."£ 

How  to  account  for  the  apparent  inconsistency  in 
the  remarks  and  conclusions  of  that  enlightened 
author  on  this  point,  I  am  unable  to  tell. 

That  the  river  Nile,  the  alluvion  of  which  is  a 
slimy  mud,§  an  impalpable  powder, If  should  flow  in 
a  circuitous  course,  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  through  a  l^vel  sea  at  a  rate  sufficient  to  cam- 
sand  and  gravel,  and  deposite  them  on  the  coast  of 
Syria,  and  in  such  quantities  as  to  bury  cities  and  fill 


*  On  the  filling  up  of  ports  and  harbours  by  the  drifting  of 
sands,  see  Ali  Bey's  Travels,  vol.  I.  page  235.  On  the  same  sub- 
ject, and  the  burying  of  towns  and  cities  by  the  drifting  of  sands, 
see  Capt.  Riley's  Narrative,  pages  208,  229,  338,  &c. 

t  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  I.  page  85.  J  Do.     Do. 

§  See  Herodotus.  t  See  Shaw's  Travels. 


ap  their  ancient  ports,  appears  to  me  not  only  impro- 
bable, but  unpiiilosophical, — nay,  impossible, 

Lest  it  should  be  thought  that  I  have  misunderstood 
this  author's  meaning,  I  shall  transcribe  his  own 
words  on  this  subject. 

"  This  every  one  knows  is  the  effect  of  that  east- 
erly current"  (in  the  Mediterranean)  "  setting  upon 
the  coast,  which  as  it  acts  perpendicularly  to  the 
course  of  the  Nile,  when  discharging  itself,  at  all,  or 
any  of  its  mouths,  into  the  Mediterranean,  must  hurry 
what  it  is  charged  with  on  to  the  coast  of  Syria,  and 
hinder  it  settling  opposite,  or  making  those  additions 
to  the  land  of  Egypt  which  Herodotus  has  vainly 
supposed."* 

If  the  reader  will  cast  his  eye  over  this  part  of  the 
map  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  he  will  at  once  be  able 
to  judge  how  improbable  such  a  conclusion  must  be :  for 
admitting  that,  during  the  prevalence  of  the  Etesian 
winds,  a  current  sets  up  the  Mediterranean,  it  can 
only  flow,  (since  there  is  no  outlet  at  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  that  sea,)  round  by  the  coast  of  Egypt  and 
Phoenicia,  and  return  again  by  the  northern  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

Now  let  us  examine  the  probable  effect  of  this  cur- 
rent, on  the  two  principal  branches  of  the  Nile. 

The  course  of  the  Canopic  branch  is  almost  in  a 
north  west  direction,  and  nearly  opposed  to  the  current 
of  the  Mediterranean.  But  we  will  suppose,  that  the 

*  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  II.  page  85. 


337 

current  of  this  branch  of  the  Nile  is  influenced  by  that 
of  the  sea,  and  turned  aside  ;  instead  of  running  per- 
pendicularly to  the  course  of  the  branch,  it  must  fol- 
low, or  stretch  along  the  coast  of  the  -delta  east  of  the 
branch,  which  is  about  north-east  by  east,  until  it  comes 
to  Cape  Berelos  or  Brulos,  when,  instead  of  following 
the  coast,  it  would  inevitably  be  thrown  off  into  the 
open  sea,  in  the  direction  of  the  island  of  Cyprus ;  the 
same  as  the  gulf  stream  is  thrown  off  from  the  Ameri- 
can coast  by  Cape  Hatteras,  and,  in  all  probability, 
never  unite  its  waters  and  allnvion,  if  it  retain  any, 
with  that  of  the  Sibennitic  branch,  or  Damietta  river. 
This  is  confirmed  by  the  remarks  of  Mr  Rennell,  who 
says  "  Here  it  is  proper  to  observe,  that  although  the 
general  current  of  the  sea  is  to  the  east,  along  the  coast 
of  Egypt,  yet  that  there  is  a  counter  current,  from  the 
Rosetta  river,  through  the  bay  of  Abouker,  at  whose 
point  it  falls  into  the  general  easterly  current,  which  is 
thrown  off  from  the  coast  by  the  projecting  form  of 
that  point."* 

1  will  next  examine  the  Damietta  river.  Its  course 
is  in  a  north  easterly  direction,  particularly,  near  its 
mouth.  Now  if  the  current  of  the  Mediterranean  flow- 
ed perpendiculy  to  this  branch,  its  current  must  flow 
to  the  south  east  opposite  the  lake  of  Menzala,  and  so 
on  by  the  coast  of  Syria ;  in  which  case,  not  a  handful 
of  sand  would  have  been  deposited  on  that  coast,  by 
reasons  of  its  running  parallel  with  it  only,  and  not 

*  Rennell's  Herodotus,  pa^p  489. 
44 


338 

directly  upon  it.  M.  Volney  observes,  that  "  during 
the  inundation,  the  Nile  occasions  a  current  along  the 
whole  coast  of  Syria,  which  extends  from  Gaza  to  Cy- 
prus :??*  but  he  does  not  pretend,  or  hint,  that  it  acts 
on  the  coast  of  Syria,  or  that  it  deposites  a  particle  of 
alluvion  on  its  shores. 

The  probability  is  that  the  current  of  the  Daraietta 
river,  was  but  very  little  affected  by  that  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  that  by  reason  of  Cape  Berelos  stretch- 
ing out  into  the  sea,  throws  the  current  of  the  latter  off 
more  to  the  north  east,  and  would  therefore  leave  the 
current  of  the  Damiettato  flow  in  the  direction  of  Tyre, 
where,  if  it  had  retained  any  alluvion,  (which  for  rea- 
sons that  I  have  advanced  is  highly  improbable,)  it 
might  have  deposited  some.  But  if  it  had  struck  the 
coast  of  Phoenicia  in  this  direction,  it  must,  from  thence, 
have  flowed  parallel  with  the  coast  to  the  northward. 
How  then  shall  we  account  for  the  situation  of  ancient 
Sidon,  Tripoli,  and  Laodicea,  the  latter  of  which  is 
one  hundred  miles  north  of  Tyre,  being  all,  nearly 
alike,  buried  with  sand?  Not,  certainly,  by  the  de- 
po^ition  of  alluvion  of  the  Nile,  since  there  are  other 
sources  but  too  well  known,  which  have  been,  for  more 
than  forty  centuries,  almost  constantly  yielding  their 
materials  to  bury  those  cities,  through  the  medium  of 
the  winds  sweeping  over  the  deserts. 

The  same  change  is  constantly  progressing  upon  the 
gulf  of  Suez,f  where  no  river  was  ever  known  to  flow. 


*  Volney '«  Travels,  page  212. 

t  See  Pococke,  page  132,  ami  ilennell's  Herodotus,  page 


454. 


339 

The  ancient  city  of  Kolzoun,  which,  in  the  time  of  the 
Caliphs,  stood  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Suez,  is  en- 
tirely buried  with  sand,  and  at  the  distance  of  six 
miles,  or  two  leagues,  from  the  present  head  of  the 
gulf.  *  This  distance  fe  allowed  for  the  retreat  of  the 
sea  in  seventeen  centuries. 

It  is  a  prevailing  opinion  with  several,  that  the 
gaining  of  the  land  upon  this  sea,  is  occasioned  by  the 
current  of  the  tides  and  waves,  which  throw  the  sand 
upon  the  beach,  where  it  accumulates,  and  the  sea 
retires. 

On  this  subject  M.  Volney  says,  "  The  dock  at 
Suez  is  ill  adapted  to  repair  such  damages  ;  scarcely 
do  they  build  a  Cayasse  in  three  years.  Besides  that, 
the  sea,  which  from  its  flux  and  reflux  accumulates  the 
sand  upon  that  coast,  will  at  last  choak  up  the  entrance, 
and  the  same  change  will  take  place  at  Suez,  which 
has  already  at  Kolzoun  and  Arsinoe."t 

Mr.  Rennell  is  likewise  disposed  to  attribute  this 
change  to  the  same  cause  ;  that  is,  to  the  operation  of 
the  tides,  and  strong  south  winds.  J 

But  why,  let  us  ask,  is  not  the  same  effect  produced 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  by  the  sands  that 
are  borne,  by  the  winds,  almost  from  the  Persian  Gulf, 
across  the  deserts  ;  and  the  waves  that  are  beating  di- 
rectly upon  it?  No  mention  is  here  made  of  any 
thing  of  the  kind* 


*  Volney's  Travels,  page 
\  Rennell's  Herodotus,  p 


f  Do-  page  137. 
page  475. 


340 

As  to  this  change  having  been  produced  by  the  ope- 
ration of  the  tides ;  who,  when  he  considers  that  the 
tide,  in  the  middle  of  that  sea,  rises  but  twelve  inches,* 
can  suppose  that  such  an  increase  only  will  cause  a 
current  of  sufficient  force,  to  take  up  the  sand,  and 
drive  it  upon  the  beach  ;  when,  as  before,  we  may  see, 
in  rivulets,  creeks,  and  rivers,  the  currents  flowing  at 
the  rate  of  four  or  five  miles  an  hour,  yet  not  a  particle 
of  sand  is  seen  to  move  ? 

Besides,  admitting  that  a  current  of  some  force  does 
prevail  in  that  sea  during  flood  tide,  whence  is  the 
sand  brought  in  a  quantity  sufficient  to  fill  up  the  head 
of  the  gulf,  and  cause  a  retreat  of  the  sea  for  six 
miles  ?f  The  gulf  of  Suez  is  not  represented  as  hav- 

*  See  Lord  Vaientia's  Travels,  vol.  II,  page  274,  and  Ren- 
nell's  Herodotus,  page  4-76. 

t  I  have  already  remarked  that,  during,  or  immediately  after 
the  universal  deluge,  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  in  all  probability,  did 
not  exist.  The  more  this  subject  is  examined,  and  the  various  cir- 
cumstances inseparably  connected  with  it,  the  less  reason  I  find  to 
alter  or  change  my  opinion  on  that  head.  It  is  well  known  that  it 
is  a  low  level  plain,  rising  but  a  very  little  above  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea  ;  that  it  lies  immediately  between  two 
deserts  of  great  extent,  over  which  the  Etesian  and  Levant  winds 
are  sweeping,  and  bearing  the  sand  away  in  torrents,  directly 
across  this  isthmus,  almost  from  one  end  of  the  year  to  the  other. 

It  is  also  well  known,  that  it  has  actually  made  considerable 
advances  upon  the  gulf  of  Suez  or  Red  Sea,  within  a  few  centuries 
and  in  the  course  of  time,  most  probably  a  distance  of  many 
leagues  ;  for  when  the  French  where  in  possession  of  Suez,  their 
engineers  discovered,  at  a  little  distance  to  the  north  of  that  place, 


841 

ins;  a  sandy  bottom.  On  the  contrary  it  is  called  the 
Weedy  Sea,*  from  the  quantity  and  variety  of  marine 
plants,  that  grow  upon  its  bottom,  which  is,  in  a  large 
proportion,  composed  of  mud.  It  is  particularly  wor- 
thy of  notice,  that  Lord  Valentia,  in  his  voyage  of  dis- 
coveries up  the  Red  Sea,  found  almost  uniformly  by 
soundings,  and  at  various  depths,  a  muddy  bottom,  and 
sometimes  a  stiff  clay. f 

66  It  has  been  thought  more  proper  therefore/'  says 
Mr.  Shaw,  "  to  translate  Jam  tiuph,  the  sea  of  weeds, 
or  the  weedy  sea,  from  the  variety  of  Algae,  and  Fuci, 
that  grow  within  its  channel,  and  at  low  water  particu- 
larly, are  left  in  great  quantities  upon  the  sea  shore.";): 

some  marshes,  which  extend  for  more  than  twenty-five  miles,  and 
are  actually  lower  than  the  sea,  though  they  are  not  overflowed,  in 
consequence  ol  a  iarge  bar  of  *and,  which  has  accumulated  between 
them.  ** Nothing,  therefore."  says  Lord  Valentia.  "can  be  more 
probable,  than  that,  in  times  so  far  back,  as  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites,  the  sea  itself  extended  to  these  marshes,  and  that  since, 
the  same  gradual  encroachments  of  sand  from  the  desert,  which 
have  formed  the  Tehama  iu  Lower  Arabia,  have  annihilated  the 
sea  in  a  place  where  it  was  so  much  narrower." — Valentines  Tra- 
vela,  vol.  III.  page  356*. 

Moreover — "  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Red  Sea 
actually  extended,  in  former  times,  twenty -five  miles  north  of 
Suez." — Do.  Do.  vol.  III.  page  359. 

*  It  was  at  Suez  that  Lord  \ralentia  was  enabled  to  enlarge  his 
collection  of  marine  plants.  «'  1  also  greatly  increased  my  collec- 
tion of  sea  weed,  w it k  which  the  Red  Sea  abounds  more  than  any 
other  "—Do.  Do.  vol.  I/I.  page  345. 

t  Valentia's  Travels,  vol.11. 

\  Shaw's  Travels,  pages  349  &  387. 


If  this  fact  be  admitted,  the  probability  is,  that  the 
influence  which  the  waves,  or  the  current  of  the  tides, 
may  have  had  on  the  bottom  of  a  sea,  or  river,  cover- 
ed with  weeds,  must  be  similar  to  that  of  the  winds 
passing  over  lands,  covered  with  weeds  or  grass  ;  very 
little  sand  would  be  disturbed.  But  whether  little  or 
much,  where  is  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  a  cause  so 
improbable  and  uncertain,  while  the  operation  of  the 
winds  on  the  surrounding  sandy  deserts,  is  so  palpable 
and  common  to  the  view  of  every  person,  that  is  dis- 
posed to  notice  and  examine  their  effects,  and  which 
alone  are  amply  sufficient  to  produce,  in  time,  all  those 
changes,  without  the  assistance  of  either  waves  or 
currents  ? 

To  substantiate  this  fact,  it  is  not  necessary  to  con- 
fine our  views  to  the  gulf  of  Suez,  or  the  coast  of  Phoe- 
nicia. The  same  or  similar  changes  have  taken  place, 
and  are  still  going  on  upon  the  borders  of  the  Cas- 
pian sea,  and  the  sea  of  Aral,  where  there  are  no  regu- 
lar tides  and  but  few  rivers. 

Professor  Pallas  observes  that  "  All  the  countries 
on  the  northern  part  of  the  Caspian  sea  tend  to  prove 
that  it  has  decreased,  and  probably  continues  to  de- 
crease in  a  greater  proportion  than  the  Mediterranean 
and  other  seas."* 

Between  the  Caspian  sea  and  that  of  Aral,  lies  an 
immense  sandy  desert,  extending  from  south  east  to 
north  west,  nearly  five  hundred  miles  in  length.  The 

*  Pallas's  Travels  in  Russia,  vol.  I.  page  79  or  80. 


348 

northern  extremity  of  this  desert  is  bounded  hy  ttas 
Caspian,  for  nearly  two  hundred  miles  in  extent, 
from  west  to  east.  This  part  of  the  sea,  into  which  no 
rivers  are  discharged,  is  subject  to  perpetual  inroads 
from  the  deserts,  by  the  sand,  that  is  driven  in  tor- 
rents by  the  south  easterly  winds,  and  deposited  on  its 
shores. 

Through,  or  rather  across  this  desert,  the  river 
Oxus  once  directed  its  course,  and  discharged  itself 
into  a  gulf,  upon  the  eastern  side  of  the  Caspian  sea, 
near  \liukisl  ik.  It  continued  to  pursue  this  course 
until  the  year  1640,  tf  hen  it  assumed  a  different  route, 
since  which,  its  ancient  bed  has  been  filled  up. 

"  The  southern  and  principal  branch  of  the  Oxus," 
(says  Mr.  Rennell,}  which  ran  into  the  south  east  part 
of  the  Caspian,  has  deserted  its  bed;  and  according  to 
JUbnlgazi  Khan,  the  tract  it  ran  through,  from  the  con- 
dition of  fertile  and  well  planted  fields,  is  become  a 
sandy  desert."* 

Whence,  I  would  again  ask,  came  these  changes, 
but  by  the  operation  of  the  winds  upon  the  sandy  de- 
serts ?  There  are,  1  believe,  no  tides  in  the  Caspian 
sea,  to  produce  this  effect :  nor  are  there  any  rivers 
which  are  discharged  into  this  sea  at  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  this  great  desert,  to  cause  its  retreat.  Nei-r 
ther  are  we  willing  to  admit  that  this  gain  of  the  land 
was  occasioned  by  tne  sand  washed,  or  thrown  up  by 
the  waves  ;  since  in  that  case,  as  the  winds  blow  in  ail 

*  K*nneil's  Herod,  p.  533. 


directions,  and  the  waves  are  dashed  upon  the  shores 
at  all  points,  the  effect  must  have  been  uniform  through- 
out the  entire  borders  of  the  Caspian  sea.  But  this  is 
not  the  case.  It  is  only  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
sandy  deserts,  or  districts,  that  we  witness  this  ten- 
dency of  the  sands  to  accumulate/upon  the  beach,  and 
gradually  extending  into  the  sea,  thereby  causing  its 
retreat.  Hence  we  are  justified  in  the  conclusion,  that 
these  changes  are  the  result  of  the  operations  of  the 
winds,  upon  the  dry  and  exposed  surfaces  of  sandy 
districts. 

From  this  view,  which  might  be  extended  to  various 
other  parts  of  the  world,  the  inference  is  plain  and 
unequivocal,  that  the  ancient  gulf,  now  occupied  by 
the  plains  of  Egypt,  and  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  has 
been  filled  up  to  the  present  extent  of  the  latter,  by 
the  agency  of  the  three  following  causes  : 

1st.     The  alluvion  of  the  Nile. 

J^dly.    The  direct  and  indirect  labours  of  man  ;  and 

3dly.  The  operations  of  the  winds  on  the  sandy  de- 
serts in  its  vicinity. 

Having  already  taken  notice  of  the  rapid  extension 
of  the  delta  of  the  Po,  since  the  year  1200,  and  that 
too  in  an  increased  ratio,  particularly  in  the  last  two 
hundred  years  ;  and  also  the  causes,  which  will  apply 
to  that  of  the  Indus,  the  Ganges,  and  almost  all  other 
deltas,  I  have  omitted  any  remarks  on  this  subject,  as 
it  relates  to  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  presuming  that 
every  person  who  will  give  himself  the  trouble  to  ex- 
amine the  facts,  will  find,  that  as  the  same  causes  have 


345 

been,  and  continue  to  be  in  operation,  governed  by  the 
same  principles,  and  regulated  b\  similar  laws,  the 
same  results  will  naturally  follow  in  the  one  case  as  in 
the  other. 

It  may  not  be  amiss,  however,  to  observe,  in  order 
to  give  a  superficial  view  of  the  subject,  that  Damietta, 
which  in  the  time  of  St.  Louis,  (A.  D.  1243,)  was  a 
sea-port  town,  is  now  more  than  ten  miles  from  the 
sea. 

That  Fooab,  which  a  little  more  than  three  hundred 
years  ago,  was  at  the  mouth  of  the  Canopic  branch,  is 
now  more  than  seven  miles  above  it.  And  further, 
the  land  between  Rosetta  and  the  sea,  has  gained,  in 
forty  years,  half  a  league.* 

From  this  it  appears  obvious,  that  the  extension  of 
the  lands  into  the  sea  has  been,  and  continues  to  be, 
in  an  increased  ratio,  proportioned  to  the  distance 
from,  or  below  Thebes,  Memphis,  or  any  other  fixed 
point,  on  the  river  Nile. 

For  instance,  the  increase  of  the  land  between  Fooah 
and  the  Canopic  mouth,  in  three  hundred  years,  ex- 
ceeds the  gain  of  five  hundred  and  seventy-six  years, 
(that  is,  from  1213  to  the  present  time,)  in  proportion 
as  thirteen  and  a  half  miles  is  to  ten  ;  or  nearly  as  nine 
is  to  seven. 

The  increase  or  gain  of  land,  in  forty  years,  ex- 
ceeds that  of  three  hundred,  in  proportion  as  eleven 
and  a  quarter  miles  is  to  seven.  Lastly,  the  gain  of 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  p.  340. 

45 


346 

forty  years,  exceeds  that  of  five  hundred  and  seventy- 
six,  in  proportion  as  twenty-two  miles  is  to  ten ; 
shewing  that  the  extension  of  the  delta  of  the  Nile  has 
progressed,  in  an  increased  ratio,  as  well  as  almost  all 
other  cases  of  a  similar  kind. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

FROM  the  grounds  which  have  been  assumed,   and  the 
manner  in  which  the   subject  of  alluvial  formations, 
and   the  deltas  of  rivers  have  been  treated,  and  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  Po,  the  Indus,    the  Ganges,  and 
the  Nile,  it  may  reasonably  be  expected   that  some- 
thing will  be  said,   on  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  or 
at  least  that  part  of  the  alluvial   formation  through 
which  it  passes,  for  more  than  two  degrees  of  latitude. 
There  are    but  few  instances  of  the  kind   in   the 
world  that     possess     more     interest,    nor    but     few 
that  afford   a  more   extensive   field  for  investigation, 
than  this  mighty  sovereign  of  rivers,    and  the  districts 
on  its  borders.      At  the  same  time,   no  instance  occurs 
in  which   the  subject  appears  to  be  involved  in  more 
profound  obscurity,  or  is*  attended   with  greater  and 
more  numerous    difficulties    in    acquiring    a    correct 
knowledge  of  facts,  than  the  one  under  consideration. 
That  a  very  considerable  increase   and  extent  of 
soil  and  alluvial  formations  have  been  created  at  the 
mouth  of  this  river,   cannot  for  a  moment  be  doubted. 
But  where  the  original  limits  of  the  bay  of  Mexico 


348 

were,  on  the  north  ;  or  where  the  primitive  shores  of 
the  continent  were,  or  the  point  at  which  this  river 
originally  discharged  its  waters  into  the  sea  or  gulf, 
no  mortal  can  explain. 

In  this  instance,  we  have  no  Osiris,  nor  no  JWenes 
from  whose  time  we  can  date  the  gradual  advances  of 
this  district ;  nor  have  we  a  Thebes  or  a  Memphis, 
as  fixed  points,  by  which  we  can  determine  its  annual 
increase  or  aggregate  formation  and  extent.  Neither 
have  we  the  writings  of  a  Pliny,  a  Herodotus,  and  a 
long  list  of  other  historians,  to  inform  us  of  the  primi- 
tive course  of  the  river ;  of  its  varied  and  multiplied 
changes  ;  of  the  gradual  increase  and  extent  of  allu- 
vial deposites ;  or  of  the  successive  events  that  have, 
in  the  course  of  time,  occurred  in  its  vicinity.  All 
and  every  circumstance  that  relates  to  its  history,  have 
remained,  during  a  long  and  fearful  night  of  darkness  ; 
wrapt  in  impenetrable  mystery  ;  while  through  this 
period  of  ages  this  noble  river  has  been  left,  unregis- 
tered upon  the  faithful  records  of  .time,  to  pursue,  in 
silent  majesty,  its  devious  course  through  the  almost 
interminable  regions  of  uncultivated  wilds,  where 
until  the  discovery  of  America,  as  far  as  we  know, 
the  footsteps  of  civilized  man  had  never  left  an  im- 
press. 

Under  circumstances  so  unfavourable  to  the  attain- 
ment of  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  changes  that  have 
taken  place  at  or  near  the  mouth  of  this  river,  it  has 
remained  since  its  discovery  subject  to  the  remarks 


349 

and  speculations  of  every  person  who  might  choose  to 
express  his  opinion  of  the  subject. 

Among  the  variety  that  has  been  advanced,  but 
two  oniy  bear  the  semblance  of  probability,  and  those 
even  are  not  without  exceptions. 

The  first  is,  that  the  alluvial  region  or  districts  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Misssisippi,  have  been  formed  by 
the  influence  or  operations  of  the  gulf  stream,  which  is 
(it  is  said)  constantly  wafting  or  transporting  the 
sand  into  the  bay  of  Mexico  to  be  deposited  upon  its 
shores. 

The  second  is,  that  it  has  been  formed  by  the  allu- 
vion brought  down  by  the  current  of  the  Mississippi 
river  and  its  auxiliary  streams,  and  deposited  near  its 
borders,  and  at  its  confluence  with  the  bay  of  Mexico. 

These  two  opinions  I  shall  proceed  to  examine  in 
order,  in  the  first  place,  to  see  how  far  they  are  en- 
titled to  credit ;  and  in  the  second,  to  ascertain  to  what 
extent  we  are  to  admit  the  agency  of  either. 

M.  de  Beaujour  observes  that  "  The  alluvial  zone 
is  in  general,  of  an  equal  level,  rising  insensibly  to- 
wards the  Alleghany  ;  and  it  appears  to  have  been  the 
work  of  the  current  of  the  Mexican  gulf,  which 
bathes  the  American  coast  from  Florida  point  as  far  as 
Cape  Cod,  from  which  it  afterwards  diverges  to  run  to 
the  east  towards  the  banks  of  Newfoundland."* 

On  the  subject  of  the  alluvial  zone,  Mr.  Volney  ob- 
serves, "  Whereas,  proceeding  southward  from  this 

*  Sketch  of  the  United  States,  page  45. 


350 

(Long)  island,  we  meet  with  nothing  but  a  flat  of  pure 
sand;  almost  level  with  the  ocean.  This  sand  has  evi- 
dently been  left  by  the  sea,  and  is  traced  to  a  consider- 
able distance  inland.* 

And  further,  "  Between  this  bank"  (the  granite 
ridge)  "  and  the  sea,  the  surface,  in  a  breadth  of  from 
thirty  to  a  hundred  miles,  is  composed  of  sand,  evi- 
dently deposited  by  the  sea,  which  once  flowed  at  the 
foot  of  this  bank."f 

A  similar  inference  may  be  drawn  from  the  remarks 
of  Mr.  Stoddard,  who  says,  "  The  eastern  part  of 
New  Spain  along  the  gulf,  exhibits  abundant  proofs 
of  similar  advances ;  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  constant 
accumulation  of  sand  by  the  trade  winds  which  is 
driven  to  the  shore  by  the  perpetual  action  of  the 
waves  in  that  direction."! 

Without  offering  any  remarks,  or  even  asking  the 
simple  question,  whence  comes  the  incredible  quantity 
of  sand  thus  supposed  to  have  been  brought  by  the 
gulf  stream,  to  produce  these  wonderful  changes  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  the  bay  of  Mexico ; 
it  is  sufficient  to  observe,  that  enough  has  been  said  on 
the  transportation  of  sand  by  currents,  and  of  its  spe- 
cifick  gravity,  when  compared  with  water,  to  convince 
any  person  acquainted  with  the  first  principles  of  hy- 
draulicks,  or  the  fundamental  maxims  of  gravitation, 
that  such  extraordinary  effects  are  physically  impossi- 

*  Volney's  View  of  America,  p?o;e  16.         t  Do.  page  56. 
|  Sketches  of  Louisiana,  page  158. 


351 

ble,  even  unrler  the  most  aggravated  circumstances  by 
wliicb  the  gulf  stream  bas  ever  been  known  to  be  re- 
gulated. Hence  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  no  part 
or  portion  of  the  great  alluvial  region,  upon  any  part 
of  the  Atlantic  shores,  nor  of  the  shores  of  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  were  ever  brought  and  deposited  by  the  sea, 
or  gulf  stream;  for  with  as  much  propriety  might  it  be 
said  that  the  great  alluvial  region  skirting  the  north- 
ern borders  of  Siberia,  and  constituting  the  southern 
boundaries  of  the  Arctic  sea  for  more  than  seven  hun- 
dred leagues  from  west  to  east,  was  formed  by  allu- 
vion brought  from  the  North  Pole,  where  not  an  inch 
of  land  is,  at  least,  known  to  exist;  for  it  is  well 
known  that  currents  are  not  wanting  in  the  Arctic  sea 
of  sufficient  rapidity,  to  produce  much  more  extensive 
and  surprising  effects  of  the  kind  if  it  depended  on 
them.* 

Jt  only  remains  to  examine  the  second  opinion,  viz. 
that  the  alluvial  lands  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  river,  have  been  formed 
by  the  alluvion  brought  down  by  that  river  and  its 
auxiliary  streams. 

That  an  almost  inconceivable  quantity  of  alluvion  is 
annually  borne  away  by  the  current  of  that  river,  there 
cannot  remain  the  least  shadow  of  doubt ;  but  that  the 
lands  to  the  extent  that  many  are  inclined  to  believe, 

*  For  an  account  of  which  see  Linschotten's  Voyage  to  Waygat's 
Straits,  vol.  IV.  page  204-.  and  Wm.  Barent's  account  of  the  voyage 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 


352 

were  formed  by  it,  is  by  no  means  probable  ;  there- 
fore cannot  be  admitted,  while  there  exist  facts  that 
will  warrant  a  very  different  opinion. 

In  order  to  a  more  correct  view,  or  a  more  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  it  is  a  matter  of  no  small 
importance  that  all  the  existing  circumstances  should 
be  carefully  examined,  and  duly  weighed,  that  we  may 
be  enabled  to  judge  whether,  in  the  first  place,  the 
lands  in  question  were  all  formed  by  the  alluvion  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  or  not ;  or  secondly,  to  what  ex- 
tent we  are  to  admit  its  agency  in  this  extensive  work. 

.In  the  examination  and  discussion  of  these  ques- 
tions, I  am  well  aware  of  the  disadvantages  under 
which  a  person  labours,  who  has  never  seen  the 
smallest  part  or  portion  of  the  Mississippi  river,  or  of 
its  auxiliary  branches ;  much  less  any  portion  of  the 
alluvial  districts  upon  their  borders.  But  from  the 
well  known  facts  that  exist,  I  am  not  disposed  to 
shrink  from  the  investigation,  under  an  apprehension 
that  popular  prejudices  cannot  be  overcome  nor  made 
to  yield  to  the  force  of  conviction,  where  truth  stands 
pre-eminent;  nor  to  relinquish  the  pursuit  from  fear  of 
a  difference  of  opinion,  since  it  is  not  expected,  nor  in- 
tended to  establish  a  decision  from  which  there  is  no 
appeal. 

It  must  appear  obvious  to  every  one  that  the  only 
object  in  view  in  the  present  instance  is  the  develope- 
ment  of  truth.  To  this  end,  I  shall  first  take  notice 
of  the  tides  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  with  a  view  to 


358 

the  influence  which  they  may  have  on  the  current  of 
the  Mississippi  river. 

It  is,  I  believe,  pretty  well  known,  and  generally 
understood,  that  the  tides  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico  rise 
but  very  little,  except  during  the  prevalence  of  violent 
north  east  or  south  east  storms,  or  gales  of  wind. — 
The  principal  authority  which  we  have  for  this,  is  that 
of  Mr.  Stoddard,  which  has  been  already  quoted, 
page  88.  On  this  subject  he  observes,  "  The  differ- 
ence between  the  highest  and  lowest  stages  of  water  in 
the  Balize,  is  about  three  feet."  And  moreover, 
66  The  tides  have  but  little  effect  on  the  water  at  Xew 
Orleans  ;  they  sometimes  cause  it  to  swell,  but  never  to 
slacken  its  current.-'* 

Hence,  when  we  take  into  view  the  amazing  quan- 
tity of  water  that  flows  in  that  river,  and  the  force  and 
velocity  of  its  current,  which  bears  down  almost  ail 
opposition,  the  conclusion  is  very  obvious,  that  the 
alluvion  which  may  be,  at  any  time,  suspended  in  its 
waters,  must  be  carried  and  deposited  at,  or  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  its  confluence  with  the  bay  of 
Mexico  ;  except  when  its  banks  are  no  longer  capable 
of  retaining  its  waters,  and  they  are  free  to  overflow 
and  inundate  the  neighbouring  country.  From  these 
facts  we  might  reasonably  infer  that  this  river  would, 
from  the  earliest  periods  of  time,  have  been  pushing 
forward  and  depositing  its  alluvion  farther  and  farther 
into  the  sea,  presenting  to  view,  at  the  present  time  an 

*  Sketches  of  Louisiana,  page  lo4. 


354 

extensive  peninsula,  stretching  into  the  sea,  far  be- 
yond the  borders  of  its  neighbouring  coasts,  or  the 
original  and  primitive  shores  of  the  ocean  :  this, 
however,  is  not  altogether  the  case.  But  it  may  he 
asked,  what  means  the  long  strip  of  land  extending 
beyond  a  line  drawn  from  Bastien  Bay  to  Black  Lake, 
to  the  head  of  the  present  delta,  or  where  the  river  is 
divided  into  three  branches,  a  distance  of  about  thirty- 
five  miles  in  a  straight  line  ;  and  to  the  extremity  of  the 
land  at  the  South  Pass,  about  forty-seven  miles  ? 

I  am  perfectly  willing  to  admit  the  existence  of  this 
strip  of  land,  and  that  it  has  been  formed  princip<illy 
by  the  alluvion  deposited  from  the  waters  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river. — But  before  I  proceed  to  answer  this 
question,  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  come  at  truth  in 
this  case,  to  take  a  view  of  the  whole  ground,  and  the 
various  circumstances  necessarily  attending  it. 

To  the  persevering  industry  and  exertions  of  Mr. 
Darby,  we  are  principally  indebted  for  the  means  by 
which  to  form  something  like  correct  ideas  of  the  sub- 
ject under  consideration.  In  his  map  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Territory,  we  find  laid  down  an  immense  tract  of 
alluvial  lands,  projecting  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
more  than  sixty  miles  beyond  a  right  line  drawn  from 
the  entrance  into  Mobile  bay,  or  Pensacola  river,  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Sabine,  or  Mermentau  river,  which 
line  corresponds  very  nearly  with  that  of  the  coast 
generally;  that  is,  east  and  west  of  the  Mississippi 
river.  This  projection  of  land,  with  the  little  islands 
adjacent,  as  represented,  form  a  pretty  correct  segment 


355 

of  a  circle  of  nearly  ISO0.  Through  or  across  the 
eastern  portion  of  this  segment  of  land,  the  Missis- 
sippi river  runs  ;  but  which,  in  its  course  from  New 
Orleans  to  near  Fort  St.  Philip,  does  not  embrace  one 
quarter  of  this  alluvial  district  or  projecting  segment. 
Now  with  all  the  gain  of  this  river  by  alluvial  depo- 
sites,  and  the  extension  of  lands  which  it  has  for  ages 
been  pushing  forward  into  the  sea,  the  extreme  point 
of  land  at  the  Balize  does  not,  it  is  believed,  extend 
so  iar,  due  south,  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  as  the  land 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Lafourche,  or  the  land  oppo- 
site the  east  end  of  the  island  Grand  Caillou. 

1  have  admitted  that  the  strip  of  land  beyond  the 
mouth  of  Bastien  bay,  to  that  of  Black  Lake  has  been 
formed  by  alluvial  deposites  from  the  Mississippi 
river.  1  now  beg  leave  to  ask  by  what  means  was  the 
projection  of  land  formed  between  the  east  end  of 
Grand  Isle,  and  the  entrance  of  Atchafalaya  bay  ? 

The  Mississippi  river  does  not  approach  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Lafourche,  in  any  direction,  within  almost 
fifty  miles,  and  at  no  point  below  New  Orleans,  not 
within  seventy  miles  of  the  land  opposite  the  east  end 
of  Isle  Grand  Caillou. 

It  may  be,  and  doubtless  is  attributed  to  one,  or  all 
of  the  following  causes. 

In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  said  that  during  the  in- 
undation of  the  Mississippi  at  some  remote  period,  its 
current,  from  the  pressure  above,  was  urged  into  the 
channel  of  the  river  Lafourche,  overflowing  the  coun- 
try to  the  right  and  left,  and  depositing  its  alluvion 


356 

in  proportion  as  its  current  was  checked  by  the  waters 
in  the  bay  of  Mexico. 

2dly.  It  may  be  alleged  that  the  same  or  similar 
operations  have  been  carried  on  upon  the  whole  course 
of  the  Atchafalaya  river;  or  that,  without  confining 
our  view  to  either  of  those  rivers,  the  Mississippi 
river  by  its  annual  inundations,  which  overflow  all 
that  part  of  the  country,  has  in  the  course  of  time, 
formed  this  district  of  alluvial  lands  that  now  projects 
into  the  bay  of  Mexico  so  far  beyond  the  general  line 
of  sea  coast. 

In  reply  to  the  first  supposition,  (viz.)  that  the  Mis- 
sissippi during  the  period  of  its  annual  inundations, 
may  have  assumed  the  channel  of  the  river  Lafourche, 
if  the  fact  be  even  admitted,  it  seems  highly  impro- 
bable that  the  alluvial  depositions  on  the  borders  of 
the  river  Lafourche,  and  at  its  mouth,  should  be  so 
very  abundant,  during  the  period  of  its  inundation,  as 
almost  to  keep  pace  with  that  of  the  Mississippi,  at, 
and  near  its  present  influx,  and  where  these  operations 
are  unremitting  for  nearly  or  quite  three  fourths  of  the 
year.  Nay,  the  circumstance  seems  so  unlikely,  and 
so  void  of  support,  that  we  ought  to  hesitate  to  admit 
it,  even  if  there  were  no  other  source,  or  means  left, 
by  which  to  explain  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon. 

Bdly.  The  same  remarks  will  apply  with  equal 
force  to  that  of  the  river  Atchafalaya.  Moreover  we 
may  add,  if  it  be  admitted  that  any  portion  of  the 
Mississippi,  flows  through  the  channel  of  this  river 
during  the  annual  inundation,  and  by  which  the  allu- 


357 

vial  district  has  been  formed  and  extended,  the  quan- 
tity of  alluvial  deposites  ought  to  have  been  much 
greater  and  extended  much  farther  into  the  gulf  than  the 
lands  at  the  mouth  of  Lafourche  ;  because  the  former 
is  a  much  larger  stream  than  the  latter,  and  runs 
through  a  greater  extent  of  country ;  but  this  is  by  no 
means  the  case ;  for  the  alluvial  lands  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Atchafalaya,  where  it  enters  the  bay  of 'that 
name,  do  not  project  so  far  into  the  bay  of  Mexico,  by 
about  twenty-five  miles,  as  the  lands  at  the  mouth  of 
Lafourche. 

To  this  we  may  add,  that  if  the  alluvial  deposites, 
by  which  these  lands  were  formed,  were  acquired 
from  this  source ;  we  might  reasonably  suppose  that 
Atchafalaya  bay  which  is  more  than  twenty  miles  in 
length,  from  east  to  west,  and  about  twelve  miles  in 
bread 'h,  and  in  many  parts,  fifty  feet  deep,  ought  to 
have  been  filled  up,  and  the  river  discharging  itself 
immediately  into  the  gulf,  as  does  the  Lafourche,  and 
as  did  the  Mississippi,  at  the  head  of  the  present 
delta. 

From  this  view,  the  advocates  for  the  formation  of 
this  immense  section  of  land,  or  segment  of  a  circle, 
which  is  equally  as  appropriate,  by  alluvial  deposites 
from  the  overflowing  or  inundations  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  seem  to  derive  but  a  very  precarious  support,  at 
best,  from  these  sources. 

It  may  be  further  alleged,  that  the  formation  of  the 
lands  that  project  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  through 
which  the  Mississippi  runs,  has  been  owing  in  part 


358 

to  the  following  causes.  It  has  been  imagined,  and 
is,  at  present  believed  by  some,  that  the  course  of  the 
Mississippi,  was  once  through  the  river  Atchafalaya 
into  the  bay  of  that  name.  By  others,  that  the  Mis- 
sissippi had  its  course  for  a  time  through  the  river 
Lafourche. 

If  we  examine  the  various  turnings  and  windings 
of  tliis  river,  from  its  entrance  into  the  Mississippi 
Territory,  to  New  Orleans,  we  shall  be  ready  to  ad- 
mit that  it  may  have  run  in  any,  and  all  directions 
through  the  country ;  for  in  that  distance,  the  whole 
channel  or  current  of  the  river  may  be  said  to  run  in 
every  possible  direction,  or  in  that  of  every  known 
point  of  the  compass. 

But  there  are  circumstances  which  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  its  general  course  has  never  varied  much 
from  that  in  which  it  now  runs,  since  the  subsidence  of 
the  general  deluge ;  and  moreover  that  it  has  never 
run  in  the  direction,  nor  through  the  channel  of  the 
Atchafalaya  river,  or  that  of  Lafourche  :  and  for  the 
following  reasons. 

If  the  Mississippi  had  ever  occupied  the  channel  or 
bed  of  the  Atchafalaya,  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  would 
have  filled  up  Lake  Chetimaches  (with  which  and  the 
Atchafalaya  there  is  a  communication  at  present,  at 
the  north  end,  and  across  which  and  Lake  Palourde 
that  river  now  runs,)  with  alluvion.  Not  only  so,  but 
we  have  still  greater  reason  to  believe  that  Atchafalaya 
bay,  into  which  the  Mississippi  river  must  have  dis- 


359 

charged  its  waters,  as  the  Atchafalaya  now  does,  must 
have  been  entirely  effaced  by  alluvial  deposes,  but 
which  is  not  the  case  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  Atchafalnya 
bay  is,  at  least,  represented  to  be,  as  before,  fifty  feet 
in  depth,  in  some  parts  of  it. 

Another  circumstance  of  no  small  importance,  must 
be  taken  into  view  in  this  case.  If  the  Mississippi 
river  had  ever  followed  the  course  of  the  Atchafalaya 
river,  or  that  of  Lafourche,  to  which  the  same  reason- 
ing will  apply  to  a  certain  extent,  we  should  still  be 
able  to  trace  its  channel  in  both  instances>  throughout 
its  whole  course  ;  for  it  is  next  to  impossible,  that  a 
river  so  deep,  and  of  such  uncommon  magnitude  as  that 
of  the  Mississippi,  should,  by  any  cause  whatever,  as- 
sume a  new  channel,  and  relinquish  entirely  the  old  or 
primitive  one,  without  leaving  traces  never  to  be  ef- 
faced. Of  this,  we  have  ample  and  unquestionable 
proof,  in  a  number  of  instances,  on  the  Mississippi 
river,  where,  at  some  period  of  time,  it  has  cut  across  a 
neck  of  land,  and  left  its  original  channel  which,  in  all 
probability,  will  never  be  entirely  obliterated.  In- 
stance the  Fausse  Riviere,  Lake  Concordia,  Lake  St. 
John,  Lake  St.  Joseph,  Lake  Providence,  and  Grand 
Lake,  all  of  which  were,  without  doubt,  the  ancient 
channels  of  the  river,  and  all  within  the  Mississippi 
territory. 

If  these  are  not  sufficient  proof,  we  have  only  to 
look  to  the  ancient  bed  of  the  Nile,  which  runs  along 
at  the  foot  of  the  Lybian  range.  This  channel,  al- 
though deserted  for  some  thousand  years,  and  subject- 


360 

ed  if  not  to  alluvial  deposites  from  water,  to  deposites 
of  sand,  that  are  swept  in  torrents  from  the  deserts, 
still  exhibits  traces  of  its  ancient  course,  and  breadth.* 

Mr.  Darby  has  intimated,  that  from  the  number  of 
large  rivers  that  flow  over  the  inclined  plane  from  the 
west,  into  the  Mississippi  river,  and  the  comparatively 
few  and  small  ones  that  flow  into  it  on  the  east,  there 
seems  to  be  a  tendency  in  the  Mississippi  to  incline 
more  eastwardly,  and  to  range  along  the  eastern 
bluffs.t 

But  it  is  not  to  be  inferred,  from  this  remark,  that 
Mr.  Darby  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  Mississippi  river 
ever  has,  or  ever  will,  run  in  a  different  channel :  on 
the  contrary,  he  observes,  "  The  bed  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, like  that  of  all  other  rivers,  is  the  deepest  valley 
in  the  country  through  which  it  flows.  ^Nothing  can 
have  less  foundation,  on  principles  of  sound  philoso- 
phy, than  the  common  notion  of  the  liability  of  the 
Mississippi  to  desert  its  channel.  There  exists  no 
data  in  the  country,  to  substantiate  this  opinion."} 

Hence,  the  conclusion  is,  that  the  immense  alluvial 
region,  and  more  particularly  that  portion  of  it  which 
extends  so  far  into  the  gulf,  between  Barataria  and 
Atchafalaya  bays,  was  never  formed  exclusively  by  de- 
posites of  alluvion  from  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
either  directly,  or  indirectly :  for,  to  what  has  been 

*  See  Rennell's  Herodotus. 
t  S<je  Darby's  Louisiana,  p.  42. 
t  Darby's  Louisiana,  p.  136. 


a0i 

said  on  the  subject  of  that  river  having  followed  the 
course  of  either  the  Atchafalaya,  or  Lafourche,  it  may 
be  added,  that  if  it  had  ever  run  into  the  channel  of 
either  of  those  streams,  it  would  have  borne  along  and 
deposited  its  alluvion,  beyond  the  adjacent  shores, 
forming  a  projection  into  the  gulf,  the  same,  or  similar 
to  that  through  which  the  river  now  runs,  from  Fort 
St.  Philip  to  the  Balize.  But  this  is  not  the  case. 

Mr.  Stoddard,  whose  opinions  I  have  already  quo- 
ted, seems  to  consider  it  as  having  been  formed  of  ma- 
terials deposited  principally  by  the  Mississippi,  and 
which  "  have  been  rolled  from  the  sources  of  the  great 
rivers."* 

Mr.  Darby,  however,  seems  to  entertain  a  very  diffe- 
rent belief,  or  at  least,  that  these  alluvial  regions  were 
not  formed  exclusively  by  deposites  of  alluvion  from 
the  Mississippi.  He,  who  has  seen  and  observed, 
perhaps,  every  portion  of  this  territory,  and  examined, 
with  a  discriminating  eye,  the  various  phenomena  that 
are  presented  to  view,  has  ventured,  unawed  by  popu- 
lar opinion,  and  unbiassed  by  preconceived  notions 
of  physical  facts,  to  assert  an  opinion  more  consistent 
with  truth,  though  at  variance  with  most  others  that 
have  been  advanced  on  this  subject. 

From  a  view  of  the  existing  facts,  he  plainly  saw  it 
was  impossible  that  the  districts  on  the  borders  of  the 
Mississippi  could  have  been  formed  alone  by  that  river. 
This  conclusion,  however,  is  drawn  from  the  following 

*  Stoddard's  Sketches,  p.  184. 

47 


362 

remarks:  "That  the  revolutions  that  have  changed 
the  very  face  of  nature  in  Lower  Louisiana,  have  not 
entirely  been  the  effect  of  alluvion,  appears  almost  de- 
monstrable, from  an  inspection  of  the  banks  of  Red 
river,  which  are  intermixed  with  marine  shells,"* 

Now  as  Lower  Louisiana  is  here  spoken  of  general- 
ly, it  may  be  said  that  the  banks  of  the  Red  river,  do 
not  strictly  come  within  the  limits  of  what  is  consider- 
ed the  delta  of  the  Mississippi. 

This  is  admitted ;  but  in  speaking  of  the  tendency  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  to  range  along  the  eastern  bluffs, 
he  again  observes  ;  "  But  a  change  of  bed,  could  never 
have  been  the  sole  cause  of  the  exemption  from  inun- 
dation, of  places  that  are  now  twenty  or  thirty  feet 
above  the  highest  water,  that  were  evidently  once  pe- 
riodically submerged."! 

Moreover,  in  speaking  of  the  lands  in  Ouachitta, 
Red,  Teche,  and  other  rivers,  he  further  observes, 
"  We  may  pronounce  those  lands  to  have  been,  to  a 
great  depth  below  the  present  surface,  the  product 
of  alluvion,  and  that  in  distant  and  remote  time,  a 
large  bay,  reaching  from  the  eastern  to  the  western 
bluffs,  penetrated  the  continent  in  the  direction  of  the 
Mississippi.  This  bay  has  been  filled  above  the 
ordinary  level  of  the  water,  by  accretion  of  soil. 
The  whole  delta  bears  evident  marks  of  this  revolu- 
tion. But  the  slope  along  the  western  bluffs,  be- 
ing raised  above,  not  only  the  common  level  of  the  sea, 

*  Darby's  Louisiana,  p.  48. 
t  Darby's  Louisiana,  page  48. 


363 

but  above  the  influx  of  tbe  tide,  and  the  highest  annual 
flood,  must  have  acquired  an  addition  of  matter  from 
some  other  store  of  materials,  or  has  been  elevated  by 
other  causes." — Page  102. 

The  existence  of  these  facts,  and  the  deductions 
which  Mr.  Darby  has  drawn,  and  which,  by  the  by, 
have  been  but  very  seldom  taken  notice  of,  are  too 
plain  and  palpable,  to  admit  of  the  least  shadow  of 
doubt  :  viz.  that  alluvial  or  other  lands,  being  above 
the  highest  tides  of  the  sea,  and  the  annual  or  semi-an- 
nual inundations  of  rivers,  cannot  owe  their  formation, 
to  deposites  of  alluvion  from  either.  It  is  a  circum- 
stance by  which  I  have  endeavoured  to  prove,  that  the 
great  alluvial  region  on  our  Atlantic  coast,  was  never 
formed  by  the  sea  or  rivers,  and  it  is  an  argument  made 
use  of  by  Baron  de  Tott  to  prove  that  cape  Beleros,  oil 
the  coast  of  Egypt,  was  not  formed  by  the  alluv  ion  of 
the  Nile,  as  is  generally  supposed  :  and  one  I  trust, 
that  will  stand  the  test  of  the  most  scrupulous  investi- 
gation, without  the  slightest  fear  of  weakening  its  va- 
lidity. 

Taking  this  fact  for  granted,  and  knowing  at  least 
from  respectable  authority,  that  lands  of  this  descrip- 
tion extend  a  very  considerable  distance  south  of  the 
thirtieth  degree  of  latitude,  or  below  New  Orleans, 
lands,  over  which  the  Mississippi  has  no  control,  and 
with  which  it  has  not,  and,  perhaps,  never  had  any  di- 
rect communication,  we  may  reasonably  ask,  to  what 
source  then  are  we  to  look  for  the  cause,  by  which  this 
extensive  district  has  been  formed  ? 


364 

Mr.  Darby  believing,  without  doubt,  that  it  could 
not,  as  before,  have  been  formed  by  the  Mississippi, 
has  suggested  the  following  idea,  "May  not  this  re- 
volution have  drawn  its  causes  from  a  change  in  the 
earth's  centre  ?  May  not  the  time  have  existed,  when 
the  Canadian  lakes  discharged  the  whole  or  part  of 
their  column  down  the  Mississippi  ? 

"  How  very  small  difference  in  the  inclination  of  the 
plane,  from  lake  Michigan,  towards  the  Mexican  gulf, 
would  produce  the  most  extraordinary  changes  ?"*  &c. 

Having  already  introduced  the  subject  of  a  change 
of  the  earth's  axis,  in  speaking  of  the  cause  of  the  ge- 
neral deluge,  or  Noatick  flood,  it  is  unnecessary  and 
inexpedient  to  offer  any  remarks  or  opinions,  on  that 
head,  in  the  present  instance.  I  shall  therefore  proceed 
to  observe,  that  having  endeavoured  to  prove,  that  the 
great  alluvial  region  on  oar  Atlantic  coast,  and  of 
which  a  large  portion  of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi  is 
unquestionably  a  part,  has  been  formed  by  the  opera- 
tion of  currents  flowing,  probably,  from  the  Arctic  sea 
or  Noth  Pole,  across  the  continent  of  America,  1  trust 
I  may  again  appeal  to  the  same  source,  for  the  cause  in 
part  of  the  phenomena  in  question,  without  being  sus- 
pected of  too  great  a  fondness  for  innovation,  or  an  un* 
due  partiality  for  a  favourite  theory. 

The  numerous  facts  that  have  been  adduced  in  favour 
of  such  a  revolution,  and  a  change  in  the  configuration 

*  Darby's  Louisiana,  pa^e  42. 


S69 

Of  this  continent,  by  this  cause  are  sufficient,  it  is  pre- 
sumed, to  warrant  the  conclusion,  that  they  are  found- 
ed in  truth  and  the  premises  correct. 

Taking  these  for  granted,  no  person  will  pretend 
that  the  alluvial  regions  in  Lower  Louisiana,  and  par- 
ticularly on  the  Mississippi  river,  below  the  thirtieth 
degree  of  latitude,  were  exempt  from  the  operations  of 
this  general  current ;  on  the  contrary,  no  one,  it  is  be- 
lieved, will  hesitate  to  admit,  that  this  part  or  portion 
of  the  country,  and  also  the  whole  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi must  have  been,  not  only  the  principal  theatre, 
of  its  action,  but  most  liable  to  the  full  force  of  its  ope- 
rations. 

I  have  observed  that  as  the  waters  of  the  deluge 
overran  the  continent,  being  at  first  confined  between 
the  great  chains  of  mountains,  the  soil  and  earth  were 
torn  up,  and  transported  to  the  borders  of  the  sea,  and 
deposited  ;  that  in  this  manner  the  whole  alluvial  re- 
gion was  formed.  >iow?  if  it  be  admitted,  that  any 
part  or  portion  of  this  region  was  formed  in  this  way 
and  by  this  cause,  it  follows  of  course  that,  whether  an, 
extensive  estuary  once  existed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi or  not,  the  whole  of  the  alluvial  region  from 
Natches,*  to  the  line  of  coast  extending  direct  from 
Pensacola  bay,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  river, 
must  have  been  formed  in  the  same  way,  at  the  same 
time,  and  by  the  same  means.  There  is  no  other  source 

*  Spe   Mr.  M-riur<  *s  Geologic)!  c*<art,  or  Beaujours*  map  of 
America,  ID  his  Sketches  of  the  United  States. 


366 

to  which  we  can  look  for  the  probable  cause  of  the  for- 
mation, and  extension  of  an  alluvial  region  so  vast,  and 
so  very  far  above  the  highest  tides  of  the  sea,  or  the 
overflowings  or  inundations  of  any  river. 

On  the  strength  of  this  supposition,  I  may  venture  to 
explain  the  manner  in  which,  during  the  same  revolu- 
tion, the  alluvion  was  urged  forward  into  the  gulf  or 
bay  of  Mexico,  thereby  forming  the  extensive  segment 
of  a  circle,  lying  between  the  meridian  of  Cat  Island, 
and  Grand  Pass  into  Vermillion  bay,  as  laid  down  in 
Mr.  Darby's  map,  which,  it  is  believed,  is  the  most  ac- 
curate of  any  before  published. 

It  may  be  presumed,  on  an  examination  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river,  and  its  numerous  tributary  streams,  that 
whether  the  general  deluge  was  occasioned  by  an  in- 
cessant fall  of  rain  for  forty  days,  and  forty  nights,  or 
from  some  other  cause,  the  Mississippi  river,  from  th3 
commencement,  must  have  been  pre-eminently  conspi- 
cuous in  its  operations,  in  forming  the  alluvial  region 
on  its  borders,  and  at  its  confluence  with  the  bay  of 
Mexico,  at  least  within  the  line  of  coast  already  de- 
fined. Not  only  so,  but  from  the  increasing  strength 
of  its  current,  and  the  amazing  quantity  of  alluvion, 
suspended  in,  and  borne  away  by  its  waters,  before 
the  continent,  generally,  was  overrun  by  currents,  its 
alluvial  deposites,  during  this  period,  must  have  been 
in  advance  of  the  adjacent  coast.  If  these  facts  be  ad- 
mitted as  being  possible,  or  probable,  what  may  we  not 
conclude,  if  the  actual  source  of  the  current  was  that 
of  the  North  Pole  ?  In  this  case,  as  I  have  already 


367 

remarked,  the  Arctic  sea,  defying  all  bounds,  overran 
its*  ancient  limits,  and  uniting  its  waters  with  those  of 
Hudson's  bay,  lakes  Superior,  Huron,  and  Michigan, 
urged  their  united  forces  into  this  immense  valley,  the 
actual  channel  of  which  is  the  Mississippi  river. 

In  such  a  state  of  things,  which  is,  by  no  means, 
improbable,  who,  that  is  endowed  even  with  the  most 
transcendant  energies  of  the  human  mind,  can  form 
any  adequate  conceptions  of  a  scene  so  awfully  sub- 
lime, and  so  tremendous  in  its  operations  ?  Or  who, 
that  has  witnessed  the  effects  of  an  incessant  and  co- 
pious fall  of  rain  for  twenty-four  hours,  will  not  admit 
that  the  alluvion,  with  which  the  waters  were  doubtless 
saturated,  must  have  been  propelled  by  such  a  force, 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  adjacent  coast,  so  as  to  form  a 
projection  similar  to  the  one  under  consideration  ?  But, 
it  will  be  said  perhaps  that  as  the  floods  rose,  so  as  to 
overflow  the  ordinary  mountains,  the  currents  of  all  ri- 
vers were  merged  in  that  of  one  vast  sea,  which,  during 
its  prevalence,  must  have  deposited  its  alluvion  on  the 
sea  coast  and  adjacent  shores  of  rivers,  as  well  as  at 
their  mouths  ;  thereby  making,  with  some  local  excep- 
tions, one  uniform  line  of  coast. 

It  will  readily  be  admitted,  that  there  is  some  de- 
gree of  plausibility  in  this  remark.  But  it  must  be  re- 
collected, that  the  same  operations  that  were  going  on 
in  the  great  vallies,  in  the  channels  and  at  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  from  the  commencement  of  the  universal  de- 
luge, to  the  period  at  which  continents  were  nearly 
submerged  and  overrun  by  a  general  current,  were  re- 


siimed,  or,  in  other  words,  continued,  after  the  waters 
of  the  flood  had  so  far  subsided,  that  the  continents 
were  but  partially  inundated,  and  the  waters  confined 
to  great  and  extensive  vallies,  through  which  rivers 
run  ;  and  these  too,  by  the  continued  draining  of  the 
lands,  which  had  been  long  saturated  with  water ;  in- 
stances of  which  may  be  witnessed,  on  the  subsidence 
of  every  spring  and  autumnal  flood  of  our  rivers  :  and 
also,  to  the  disruption  of  the  sides  of  deep  and  exten- 
sive reservoirs,  formed  by  nature,  upon  elevated  lands, 
and  upon  the  tops  of  mountains,  through  which  the  wa- 
ters that  were  collected  during  the  flood,  and  left  on  its 
subsidence,  rushed  with  overwhelming  force,  bearing 
away  every  moveable  thing,  and  particularly  the  soil, 
to  add  to  the  currents  of  rivers  already  turbid  with  al- 
luvion. 

It  is  to  this  source  that  we  may  reasonably  look  for 
the  cause  by  which  this  immense  district  has,  at  least 
in  part,  been  formed  and  projected  into  the  bay  of 
Mexico,  so  far  beyond  the  adjacent  coasts. 

In  order  to  establish  this  point,  it  is  necessary  that 
all  the  existing  facts  and  circumstances,  relating  to  the 
geology  and  topography  of  this  region,  should  be  exa- 
mined and  brought  into  view.  These  it  is  difficult, 
nay,  impossible,  to  have  access  to,  being,  in  part,  be- 
neath the  surface ;  and  the  remainder  but  superficially 
known,  or  if  examined  at  all,  it  has  not  been  with  a 
view  to  the  subject  in  question. 

Now  the  difficulties  under  which  a  person  must  la- 
bour, who  is  endeavouring  to  elucidate  a  point  that  is 


369 

involved  in  doubt  and  obscurity,  without  these  advan- 
tages, must  appear  obvious  to  every  intelligent  mind. 
But,  when  the  motives  and  the  object  are  kept  in  view, 
it  is  hoped  that  a  suitable  indulgence  will  not  be  with- 
held. 

Notwithstanding  the  disadvantages  which  have 
been  stated,  there  are  two  facts  on  which,  from  their 
actual  existence,  and  unequivocal  character,  I  shall 
risk  the  final  decision. 

The  first  is,  that  lands  which  are  higher  than  the 
overflowing  or  inundation  of  the  river,  or  the  tides  of 
the  sea,  could  not,  as  before,  have  been  formed  by  ei- 
ther. Of  such,  the  district  in  question  abounds.  This 
conclusion,  however,  is  drawn  from  the  remarks  of  Mr. 
Darby,  who  observes,  « The  following  line  includes 
all  the  territorial  surface  upon  which  the  sugar  cane 
has  as  yet  been  attempted,  in  the  state  of  Louisiana. 
Beginning  at  the  Rigolets,  and  running  through  Lakes 
Pouchartrain  and  Maurepas,  and  up  the  Amite  and 
Iberville  rivers  to  the  Mississippi ;  thence  up  the  lat- 
ter stream,  including  the  settlements  at  Point  Coupee, 
and  Fausse  Riviere  ;  thence  west  to  Opelousas  ;  and 
thence  including  the  Teche  and  Jltchafalaya  to  their 
mouths  ;  thence  along  the  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
to  the  place  of  beginning." 

Now  if  the  lands  included  within  the  above  limits, 
(the  superficies  of  which  amount  to  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  district  under  consideration,)  are  suscepti- 
ble of  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane,  and  particu- 
larly that  portion  which  li^s  *<  along  the  coast  ot  the 

48 


370 

gulf  of  Mexico. "  we  have  reason  to  believe,  that  they 
are  above  the  overflowing  of  the  tides  of  the  sea.  or  the 
inundations  of  the  river ;  consequently,  they  could  not 
have  been  formed  and  elevated  to  their  present  height, 
exclusively  by  either,  although  much  may  have  been 
done  in  this  work,  by  the  latter. 

A  circumstance  that  has  had  considerable  influence 
in  establishing  a  belief  that  the  delta  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, so  called,  has  been  formed  by  that  river,  is,  that 
its  banks,  and  those  of  almost  all  the  subordinate 
streams  and  bayous,  are  highest  next  to  the  rivers, 
where  the  greatest  quantity  of  alluvion  was  deposited, 
and  thence  gradually  descending,  as  they  recede  from 
them.  That  the  banks  are  higher  immediately  upon 
the  river,  than  at  a  distance,  is  unquestionably  true; 
JBut  that  they  were  formed  and  elevated  by  deposites 
of  alluvion  from  the  currents  alone,  is  doubtless  an 
errour;  for  we  find,  upon  almost  all  rivers  running 
through  alluvial  districts,  or  having  alluvial  banks, 
however  high  they  may  be  elevated  above  the  water, 
or  the  highest  inundations,  that  they  have  always  a 
greater  or  less  descent  from  the  river.  This  may  be 
seen  on  the  banks  of  many  rivers,  and  which,  being 
thirty  or  forty  feet  above  low  water,  were  never  known 
to  have  been  overflowed. 

In  order  to  comprehend  the  subject  more  fully,  it 
may  not  be  amiss  to  examine  the  process  by  which 
they  are  formed. 

It  is  believed,  that  when  a  river  passes  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  coast,  and  discharges  itself  into  an  open 


371 

bay,  or  sea,  it  becomes  diffused  with  the  general  mass. 
As  the  volume  or  current  of  the  river  is  urged  forward, 
the  waters  at  the  two  sides  leave  the  main  body  of  the 
current,  and  their  force  is  slackened  or  checked  by  the 
resistance  of  the  surrounding  medium,   and  the  grosser 
parts  of  the  alluvion,  which,  till  then,  were  held  sus- 
pended,  are  let  fall ;  while  the  finer,  or  alluininous 
parts,   are  still  suspended   and  conveyed  further  on. 
By  the  frequent  repetition,  or  long  continuance  of  this 
process,   lateral   banks  are  elevated  and  extended  be- 
yond their  ancient  limits,  until  they  are  raised  nearly 
to  the  highest  point  at  which  the  tides,  or  water  of  the 
river  ever  rise. 

On  the  subsidence  of  an  annual  inundation,  or  the 
tides,  these  banks  are  left  above  the  water,  while  the 
grounds,  at  a  few  rods  distant,  where  there  is,  per^ 
haps,  a  lagoon  or  pond,  is  ten  feet  lower.  On  the  suc- 
ceeding annual  or  semi-annual  inundation,  the  water  in 
the  river  rises  to  the  height  of  twelve  inches  above 
the  new  forming  bank  ;  flows  into  the  adjacent  pond, 
or  lagoon,  and  fills  it  up.  Now,  admitting  that  the 
waters  in  the  river  were  charged  with  alluvion,  what 
kind  of  result  ought  we  to  expect,  on  the  subsidence  of 
the  water?  The  answer  appears  obvious,  that  if  there 
be  ten  feet  of  water  in  the  pond,  or  lagoon,  or  on  the 
grounds  adjacent  to  the  river,  and  only  one  foot  on  the 
newly  formed  bank,  and  the  waters  of  the  river  alike 
saturated  with  alluvion,  we  ought,  for  every  deposits 
of  one  inch  on  the  bank,  to  find  ten  inches  in  the  la- 
goon, or  adjacent  grounds  ;  consequently,  by  a  repeti- 


378 

tion  of  this  process,  for  a  series  of  years,  the  grounds 
adjacent  to  a  river  would  be  brought  up  to  a  perfect 
level  with  the  banks,  by  the  time  that  they  cease  to  be 
overflowed.  But  is  this  the  case  ?  I  answer  no ;  not, 
perhaps,  in  a  solitary  instance.  On  the  contrary,  the 
banks  continue  to  increase  in  height  until  they  are  ele- 
vated so  far  above  the  highest  inundation  as  seldom, 
if  ever  to  be  overflowed,  while  the  lands  adjacent  con- 
tinue low,  and  are,  perhaps,  annually  inundated. 

This  state  of  things  will  be  found  to  exist  on  many 
of  the  rivers  in  America,  on  all  the  deltas  of  which  I 
have  taken  notice,  and  particularly  that  of  Egypt ;  of 
which  Dr.  Shaw  has  said,  '<  For  whereas  the  soil  of 
other  plain  countries  is  usually  of  the  same  depth,  here 
we  find  it  vary  in  proportion  to  the  distance  from  the 
river,  being  sometimes  near  the  bank  more  than  thirty 
feet  high,  whilst  at  the  utmost  extremity  of  the  inunda- 
tion, (viz  )  at  the  skirts  of  the  valley,  and  next  to  the 
hills,  it  is  not  the  quarter  part  of  so  many  inches."* 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Shaw, 
respecting  the  fact  above  quoted,  it  may  be  remarked, 
that  it  is  not  peculiar  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  nor  the 
valley  of  Egypt ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  almost  univer- 
sal in  all  alluvial  districts,  on  the  borders  of  rivers, 
and  the  cause  of  which  may  be  accounted  for,  or  ex- 
plained  in  the  following  very  easy  and  rational  man- 
ner, viz :  by  the  operations  of  the  winds,  sometimes 

*  Shaw's  Travels,  page  439,    for  remarks  on  this  passage,  see 
pages  304  and  305. 


assisted  by  the  growth  of  vegetables:  the  former  of 
which  it  carefully  observed  and  particularly  examin- 
ed, together  with  the  operations  of  currents,  it  may  be 
asserted  with  safety,  that  there  is  not  a  spit,  sand  bar, 
sand-bank,  flat,  or  alluvial  island,  the  formation,  mo- 
dification, or  changes  of  which  may  not  be  accounted 
for,  by  the  operation  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  agents, 
either  separately  or  combined.  This,  however  impro- 
bable and  unimportant  it  may  appear,  is  of  the  utmost 
consequence  in  all  hydraulic  researches,  and  particu- 
larly in  military  architecture,  where  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  erect  fortifications  on  the  borders  of  alluvial 
districts,  or  in  situations  liable  to  changes. 

The  process  by  which  alluvial  banks  are  more  and 
more  elevated  by  Vegetation,  and  more  especially  by 
winds,  is  nearly  as  follows — 

When  a  newly  formed  bank  or  banks,  are  elevated 
by  successive  deposites  of  alluvion,  to  the  height  at 
which  the  annual  inundations  of  the  waters  rise,  they 
are,  on  the  subsidence  of  the  waters,  left  exposed  to  the 
operations  of  the  winds,  which,  however  small  the 
elevation  may  be  above  the  water,  will  soon  produce 
some  change ;  for  the  wind  in  passing  over  an  uni- 
form surface,  as  that  of  a  river,  lake,  &c.  and  meet- 
ing with  an  obstruction,  is  elevated  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  current  of  water  in  a  rivulet,  where 
it  meets  with  an  obstruction  in  its  course.  If  the 
wind  be  so  strong  as  to  raise  the  sand,  when  it  first 
meets  the  obstruction,  or  strikes  this  sand  bank,  it  is 
carried  over  and  at  a  little  distance  beyond  the  sum- 
mit of  the  bank,  before  it  is  let  fall,  on  the  opposite 


side ;  because  the  wind  in  its  course,  not  conforming  to 
the  inequality,  or  course  of  the  bank,  or  other  obstruct- 
ing medium,  forms,  on  the  leeward  side,  a  kind  of  eddy, 
into  which  the  sand,  being  much  heavier  than  air,  is 
immediately  deposited. 

If  the  winds  change  in  an  opposite  direction,  the 
same  operation  is  continued,  until  the  sand  is  at  last 
heaped  up  in  a  ridge  of  a  pyramidal  shape,  on  the  top 
and  sides  of  which,  vegetation  at  length  springs  up, 
and  serves  to  increase  the  obstruction,  and  detain  the 
sand.  Subsequently,  other  successive  strata  of  allu- 
vion are  annually  deposited,  at  the  base  of  the  bank. 
This  is,  in  the  same  manner,  afterwards  hurried  by 
the  winds  towards  the  summit,  where  it  is,  in  part, 
detained  by  the  growth  of  vegetables.  Thus  it  con- 
tinues to  be  elevated,  while  the  neighbouring  low 
grounds  experience  the  trifling  augmentation  of  an  an- 
nual deposite  of  alluvion,  from  the  waters  that  over- 
flow them. 

At  length  the  violence  of  the  current  of  the  river, 
or  the  beating  of  the  waves  against  the  bank,  breaks 
down  a  portion,  and  forms  a  somewhat  inclined  or  per- 
pendicular front,  against  which  the  winds  are  more 
directly  apposed.  Should  they  prevail  with  more  than 
ordinary  force  or  strength,  or  should  they  blow  either 
obliquely,  or  at  right  angles  across  the  river  loaded 
with  dust,  or  should  they  even,  by  their  force  against 
this  upright  bank,  raise  a  torrent  of  dust,  it  is  elevat- 
ed into  the  air,  and  deposited  more  immediately  on  the 
margin  of  the  bank  next  the  river. 


375 

This  operation  is  carried  on  upon  all  broken  and 
sandy  banks,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest;  but  it 
may  be  seen  and  observed,  to  the  best  advantage,  upon 
high  perpendicular  banks,  such  as  prevail  higher  upon 
the  Mississippi  and  other  rivers,  in  the  Mississippi 
territory. 

Here  the  wind,  in  crossing  the  river,  either  oblique- 
ly or  at  right  angles,  strikes  forcibly  against  the  bank, 
and  is  immediately  elevated  with  its  dust  and  sand 
into  the  air  ;  in  passing  over  the  bank,  it  forms  an  arch 
of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees  of  a  circle, 
before  it  is  brought  into  the  general  current  of  air,  so  ae 
to  sweep  along  the  surface  of  the  ground  again.  Be- 
neath this  arch,  or  current  of  air,  is  a  kind  of  eddy, 
into  which  the  sand  and  dust,  that  is  suspended  and 
floating  over  the  banks,  is  let  fall,  in  the  same  manner, 
as  alluvion  is  deposited  by  a  current,  that  falls  into  an 
eddy 

It  is  in  this  way  and  by  this  process,  that  the  allu- 
vial banks  of  almost  all  rivers,  have  been  raised  and 
kept  higher  than  the  land  at  a  distance  from  the  river ; 
and  it  is,  doubtless,  to  this  source  that  we  may  look  for 
the  cause,  in  part,  of  the  elevation  of  the  banks  of  the 
alluvial  region  under  consideration. 

Should  any  doubts  exist  of  the  correctness  of  this 
view,  a  more  satisfactory  and  a  more  beautiful  illustra- 
tion of  the  fact  may  be  witnessed,  almost  every  winter, 
by  the  drifting  of  snow :  in  which  all  the  phenomena 
are  regulated  by  the  same  laws,  and  governed  by  the 
same  principles. 


376 

In  this  instance,  so  familiar  to  every  person,  it  is 
well  known  that  every  object  which  is  opposed  to  the 
winds,  so  as  to  obstruct  its  current,  causes  it  to  be  ele- 
vated ;  so  that  in  passing  over  the  obstruction,  to  min- 
gle again  in  the  general  current,  this  arch  is  formed, 
proportioned,  as  in  all  cases,  to  the  velocity  of  the 
wind,  the  height  of  the  opposing  object,  arid  the  angle 
which  it  forms  with  the  horizon. 

Through,  and  beneath  this  arch,  the  snow,  being 
specifically  much  heavier  than  air,  is  deposited  and 
forms  a  drift.  As  soon  as  this  drift  or  bank  has  risen 
sufficiently  high  to  oppose  the  winds,  a  perpendicular 
front  is  soon  formed,  against  which  the  wind  is  for- 
cibly hurried,  and  being  elevated  into  the  air  is  swept 
over  the  drift,  depositing  beneath  the  arch,  or  in  the 
eddy,  and  on  the  top  of  the  drift,  the  snow  that  is  ele- 
vated by  it.  In  this  way  the  drift  is  raised  in  front, 
and  gradually  descending  to  the  level  of  the  surround- 
ing mass. 

Waiving  for  the  present,  any  further  remarks  on  this 
particular  part  of  the  subject,  which,  though  interest- 
ing in  itself,  may  be  considered  a  kind  of  digression, 
I  shall  proceed  to  an  examination  of  the  second  fact. 

Among  the  proofs  of  the  operations  of  currents,  that 
have  overran  this  continent,  and  probably  every  other, 
the  existence  of  fossil  organick  remains,  at  a  great  depth 
in  the  earth,  and  particularly  of  wood,  has  already  been 
frequently  mentioned  in  this  work.  It  becomes  neces- 
sary, however,  in  the  present  instance  to  bring  it  again 
into  view,  and  in  a  particular  manner  to  invite  atten- 


377 

tion  to  it,  as  constituting  one  of  the  criteria,  by  which 
we  are  enabled  to  form  correct  notions  of  the  changes 
that  have  taken  place  in  almost  all  alluvial  regions, 
and  particularly  the  one  under  consideration. 

Independently  of  the  many  places  that  have  been 
pointed  out,  where  fossil  remains  of  wood  are  formed ; 
it  is  mentioned  by  Mr.  Bartram  and  Mr.  Stoddard,* 
as  being  abundant  in  several  places  on  the  Mississippi 
river,  at,  and  below  low  water,  and  at  a  great  depth 
below  the  surface  of  the  lands.  These  remains  may 
be  traced  in  many  places,  and  to  a  great  distance  in  the 
Mississippi  valley  ;  but  in  no  instance,  that  I  know  of, 
are,  they  to  be  seen-  between  the  lower  deposite  or 
stratum,  and  the  surface  of  the  earth;  at  least,  at  any 
place  above  New  Orleans. 

To  what  extent  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river  this  stratum  of  fossil  wood  is  to  be  found, 
I  am  unable  to  say ;  but  if  respectable  verbal  testi- 
mony may  be  relied  on,  it  may  be  traced  to  a  great 
distance  below  New  Orleans.  But  whether  this  be 
true  or  not,  it  is  mentioned  that  in  a  canal  lately  dug 
by  the  Baron  de  Carondolet,  between  Lake  Ponchar- 
train  and  the  Mississippi,  "a  substratum  of  black 
earth  was  discovered,  mixed  with  the  remains  of 
trees."! 

The  existence  of  a  stratum  of  fossil  wood,  in  this 
and  many  other  places,  below  low  water,  and  in  situa- 

*  See  Bartrara's  Travels,  and  Stoddard's  Sketches, 
t  Volney's  View,  page  61. 

49 


378 

tions  where,  without  doubt,  the  sea  or  ocean  once  pre- 
vailed, and  where  living  forest  trees  could  never  have 
existed,  leads  us  at  once  to  the  conclusion,  that  in  the 
onset  of  some  great  revolution,  these  trees  were  torn 
up,  and  hurried  beyond  the  ancient  boundaries  of  the 
ocean,  and  deposited  upon  or  near  its  bottom.  And 
that,  moreover,  during  the  same  revolution  and  by  the 
same  cause,  the  immense  districts  of  alluvial  grounds, 
that  have  been  formed  over  them,  and  in  which,  no 
organick  remains  of  the  kind  are  to  be  seen,  were  also 
deposited. 

That  to  whatever  point  or  distance  we  find  this  sub- 
stratum of  fossil  wood  to  extend,*  below  New  Orleans, 
so  far,  it  is  presumed,  this  district  was  formed  and  ex- 
tended, by  the  same  cause,  and  at  the  same  time  that 
the  great  alluvial  region  was  formed  below  Natchez, 
extending  from  Long  Island  to  the  Colorado  river. 

These  conclusions  are  grounded  on  the  following 
facts.  In  the  first  place,  there  exists  an  almost  perfect 
correspondence  in  the  situation  and  depth  of  this  sub- 
stratum of  fossil  wood,  wherever  it  has  been  found, 
tluuughoutthe  alluvial  region  on  the  coast  of  America, 
as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world ;  which  is  a 
strong  proof  that,  in  general,  it  was  deposited  at  the 
same  time. 

&dly.  Between  -the  surface  of  the  ground  and  this 
substratum  of  fossil  wood,  and  within  the  limits  just 
mentioned,  no  intermediate  layer  or  deposite  of  wood, 
has  been  found,  with  the  exception  of,  perhaps,  a 
solitary  limb  or  piece  of  wood.  Such  is  the  case 


379 

throughout  the  alluvial  zone,  and,  it  is  believed,  a 
great  portion  of  that  part  of  the  delta  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, which  projects  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 

3dly.  In  almost  all  situations,  upon  the  borders  and 
at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  where  alluvial  districts  are 
forming  by  annual  deposites  of  alluvion  from  such 
river,  and  in  which  great  quantities  of  drift  wood  is 
annually  or  semi-annuully  floated  down  its  current,  we 
find  the  deposites  of  organick  remains,,  whether  of 
trees,  shrubs,  or  other  vegetable  substances,  corres- 
ponding with  the  annual  deposites  of  alluvion,  in 
regular  succession. 

Hence  the  plain  and  only  inference  is,  that  to  what- 
ever distance  below  New  Orleans,  or  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  Vlobile  bay,  to  the  mouth  of  Mermeutau 
river,  this  substratum  of  organick  remains  may  be 
found  to  exist  with  a  superincumbent  mass  of  alluvion, 
in  which  there  are  no  fossil  remains  of  wood,  and 
over  which  neither  the  inundations  of  the  river  nor  the 
tides  of  the  sea  ever  flow,  so  far  it  is  believed  this 
district  could  never  have  been  formed  by  the  alluvion 
of  the  Mississippi,  or  that  of  any  other  river. 

It  may  have  been,  and  doubtless,  will  be  said  that 
these  conclusions  are  drawn  from  false  premises — that 
the  facts  stated,  though  they  exist,  are  by  no  means 
uniform,  or  general. — That  fossil  remains  of  wood  are 
or  niay  be  found  in  numerous  places,  far  above  New  Or- 
leans, and  in  many  parts  of  the  delta,  at  any  depth  below 
the  surface. — That  during  the  period  of  the  inundation, 


380 

a  large  portion  of  this  region  is  overflowed,  and  con- 
stantly becoming  more  elevated  by  annual  deposites 
of  alluvion,  &c. 

That  fossil  wood  may  be  found  in  many  places  in 
this  district,  and  at  various  depths  below  the  surface, 
is  by  no  means  improbable.  In  speaking  of  deposites 
of  fossil  wood,  in  the  early  part  of  this  work,  it  has 
been  admitted  that  remains  of  wood  are  sometimes 
found  in  marshes,  or  low  sunken  places,  at  the  depth 
of  several  feet  below  the  surface  :  but  this  does  not  in- 
validate the  assertion  that  an  uniform,  general,  and 
extensive  deposite  of  fossil  wood  may  exist  at  a  still 
greater  depth,  throughout  the  district,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  be  the  result  of  a  very  different  cause. 

It  will  likewise  be  admitted  that  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  a  very  large  proportion  of  this  part  of  th* 
country  is  actually  inundated,  and  by  which  there  is  an 
annual  increase  of  soil  by  alluvial  deposites.  Neither 
does  this  prove  that  the  very  districts  thus  annually 
inundated,  and  which  are  becoming  more  and  more 
elevated  by  deposites  of  alluvion,  may  not  have  been 
formed  by  the  operations  of  a  current,  flowing  from  the 
Arctic  sea,  or  Hudson's  bay,  through  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi :  for  it  does  not  follow,  that  because  they 
are  in  this  age  annually  overflowed,  they  have  always 
been  thus  deluged.  On  the  contrary,  it  may  be  safely 
alleged,  that  the  time  has  been,  and  that  too,  proba- 
bly, long  since  the  Christian  JEra,  when  the  same 
lands  that  are  now  annually  inundated,  were  elevated 
above  the  overflowings  of  the  Mississippi,  and  other 


381 

i-ivers  ;  when  they  were  left  dry,  and  covered  with  a 
luxuriant  growth  of  herbage,  and  forest  trees  waving 
high  in  air.  When  the  inhabitants,  who  erected  the 
Tumuli  and  mounds,  discovered  by  Mr.  Darby  on  the 
Teche  river,  were  free  to  roam,  at  large,  unawed  and 
unrestrained  by  the  floods,  that  now  annually  flow  at 
their  bases.* 

To  attempt  to  establish  these  facts  would  necessa- 
rily lead  to  the  discussion  of  points,  foreign  to  the  in* 
tentions  and  plan  of  this  wrork ;  and  in  which  no  mo- 
tives could  induce  a  participation,  save  the  wish  to 
promote  the  cause  of  truth,  and  the  comfort  and  hap- 
piness of  that  part  of  the  human  family,  whose  destiny 
it  may  be  to  inhabit,  and  improve  this  portion  of  the 
country,  which  holds  out  such  flattering  prospects,  of 
the  easy  acquirement  of  rapid  fortunes,  by  the  rich  and 
almost  spontaneous  products  of  its  luxuriant  soil. 

These,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  a  sufficient  excuse  for 
offering  some  reasons,  for  the  opinions  which  1  have 
advanced,  more  especially  since  in  this  subject,  the 
welfare  of,  not  only,  the  present,  but  future  genera- 
tions may  be  deeply  involved. 

Whether  the  lands  that  are,  at  this  period  of  time, 
annually  inundated  by  the  overflowing  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, were  formed  by  deposites  of  alluvion  from  its 
w  aters,  or  not,  is  not  the  question  in  the  present  in- 
stance. It  is  whether  the  lands  that  are  now  inun* 

*  See  Darby's  Louisiana,  page  117. 


383 

dated,  were,  at  any  period  of  time,  less  so  than  at 
present. 

To  determine  this  point,  it  is  necessary  to  inquire 
into,  and  examine  what  was  the  ancient  state  and  con- 
dition of  the  Mississippi  river,  as  it  respects  its  con- 
fluence with  the  bay  of  Mexico,  and  what  it  now  is. 

It  is  pretty  well  known,  and  generally  admitted, 
that  the  ancient  southern  boundaries  of  the  continent, 
on  the  Mississippi  river,  did  not  extend  far  below  Nat- 
ches.  That  by  some  revolution  in  the  economy  of  the 
earth,  a  very  great  increase  of  territory  has  been  form- 
ed, and  added  to  the  continent,  extending  from  Nat- 
ches  to  a  line,  having  a  bearing  south  westerly,  and  in- 
tersecting the  thirtieth  degree  of  latitude  at  New- 
Orleans,  and,  perhaps,  much  farther. 

This  fact  being  admitted,  we  are  left  to  conclude 
that  the  ancient  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  was  at  or 
near  Natcbes.*  That  in  consequence  of  the  addition 
of  territory,  the  Mississippi  had  to  pass  through  an  ex- 
tent of  country  more  than  two  degrees  beyond  its  an- 
cient point  of  discharge  into  the  sea.  Consequently 
through  a  district,  having  but  little  descent,  as  must 
appear  evident  from  a  view  of  the  land  on  its  borders — 
therefore  its  current  must  necessarily  have  been  retard- 
ed in  proportion  to  the  diminution  of  slope  in  the  in- 


*  In  order  to  comprehend  this  fact,  it  is  necessary  to  consult 
the  mnp  of  the  United  State?,  in  which  the  alluvial  zone  and  other 
formations  are  clearly  laid  down. 


383- 

clined   plane,   and  distance  which  it  had  to  run,   and 
ai«o  the  resistance  of  the  tides  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 

These  were,  doubtless,  considerable  ;  but  when  we 
consider  that  the  Mississippi  river  was  then  confined 
within  high  banks,  and  propelled  by  the  same  irresist- 
ible force  into  the  ocean,  and  over  a  distance  much 
less  than  at  present ;  need  we  hesitate  to  say,  that  the 
lands  on  the  western  borders  of  what  is  called  the 
delta  of  the  Mississippi  were  not  only  previously 
formed,  but  seldom  overflowed,  and  that  not  until  the 
inundations  of  the  river  had  arrived  to  its  greatest 
height  ?  1  presume  not.  If,  however,  it  is  contended 
that  the  waters  in  the  Mississippi  have  probably  been 
always  the  same  in  quantity,  and  that,  consequently,  it 
has  always  risen  to  the  same  height,  attended  by  the 
same  results,  as  respects  the  inundation  of  the  neigh- 
bouring districts  :  let  us  examine  a  little  farther,  and 
compare  the  present  state  of  things  with  the  past,  in 
order  to  see  whether  .this  opinion  will  bear  the  test  of 
a  plain  and  impartial  investigation. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  Misissippi  river,  instead  of 
discharging  its  waters  at  a  point  corresponding  with 
the  general  line  of  sea  coast,  as  at  New  Orleans,  was 
by  the  formation  and  extension  of  alluvial  grounds, 
conveyed  so  far  beyond  its  ancient  limits  as  to  dis- 
charge itsejf  at  some  indefinite  point,  on  a  line  from 
Black  Lake  to  Bastien  bay,  which  is  distant  from  New 
Orleans  forty  miles,  in  a  direct  line. 

Now  as  there  is  not  the  least  possible  doubt,  that 
the  sea  once  flowed  at  New  Orleans,  and  that  the  Mis- 


.384 

sissippi  once  discharged  itself  at  that  point,  it  follows, 
since  it  is  sufficiently  evident  that  the  sea  has  not  di- 
minished in  height,  that  the  Mississippi  must,  in  every 
inch  of  that  distance  have  urged  its  way  through  or  in 
opposition  to  the  ocean  or  bay  of  Mexico,  through 
which  distance,  being  upon  the  level  with  the  waters 
in  the  gulf,  there  is  not  the  least  possible  descent. 
This  is  not  all :  the  tides  it  is  well  known,  do  actually 
rise  so  as  to  check  the  current  in  the  Atchafalaya 
river,  as  far  up  as  the  great  raft*  which  lies  west  of, 
and  is  on  the  same  parrallel  of  latitude,  as  New  Or- 
leans. If  is  equally  well  known  that  the  tides  like- 
wise rise  in  Lake  Borgne,  Lake  Ponchartrain,  and 
even  in  the  river  Iberville,  all  of  which  are  on  the 
east,  and  north  of  New  Orleans.! 

This  being  the  case,  will  any  one  pretend  that  the 
tides,  but  for  the  current  of  the  Mississippi,  would  not 
rise  above  New  Orleans?  I  presume  not.  Conse- 
quently, in  addition  to  the  diminished  slope  in  the  in- 
clined plane,  or  want  of  descent,  the  resistance  of  the 
waters  of  the  bay  of  Mexico  in  their  natural  state  and 
elevation,  and  against  which  this  river  has  to  force  its 
way ;  is  also  the  resistance  of  the  tides  through  an  ex- 
tent of  more  than  ninety  miles. 

It  will,  doubtless,  be  said  that  the  force  of  the  cur- 
rent of  the  Mississippi  is  such,  that  the  tides  do  not 
exercise  any  power  or  influence  over  it,  so  far  at  least, 
as  to  occasion  any  difference  in  its  velocity ;  and  this, 

*  Darby's  Louisiana,  page  73.        f  Do.     Do.  page  131. 


385 

perhaps,  because  Mr.  Stoddard  has  said,  "The  tides 
have  little  effect  on  the  water  at  New-Orleans  ;  they 
sometimes  cause  it  to  swell,  but  never  to  slacken  its 
current."* 

But  does  it  follow  that  the  current  is  not  checked  at 
the  distance  of  twenty,  or  even  ten  miles  below,  be- 
cause it  does  not  appear  to  be  slackened  at  New- 
Orleans?  I  must  reply,  by  no  means.  It  is,  at  times, 
and  under  certain  circumstances,  materially  slacken- 
ed at  the  distance  of  twenty  miles  below  that  city, 
and  doubtless  from  the  causes  which  I  have  mention- 
ed :  and  if  checked  at  that  distance,  it  must  necessari- 
ly be  proportionately  so  at  New-Orleans.  That  this 
is  the  fact,  is  obviously  implied  by  the  remark,  which  1 
have  just  quoted,  viz  :  "  They  (the  tides)  sometimes 
cause  it  to  swell." 

If  then  the  tides  cause  the  river  or  current  to  swell 
at  New-Orleans,  can  a  proof  more  positive  be  requir- 
ed, that  it  is  at  the  same  time  slackened  ?  I  answer  no. 
If  nevertheless  it  be  still  doubted,  what  shall  we  say 
to  the  following,  "Heavy  winds,"  says  Mr.  Stod- 
dard,  "  roll  in  the  water  from  the  gulf,  and  cause  sud- 
den rises  of  the  river,  in  some  instances,  equal  to  a 
spring  freshet  "-\ 

In  this  instance,  can  it  be  supposed,  that  the  water 
of  the  bay  of  Mexico  is  actually  driven  by  the  winds 
up  to  New-Orleans,  so  as  to  occasion  the  elevation  of 
the  current  of  the  Misssissippi  ?  No  one,  it  is  pre- 
sumed, will  answer  in  the  affirmative. 

*  Stoddard'§  Sketches,  page  164.        t  Do.  page  164. 

50 


386 

The  fact  is,  the  long  continued  or  high  southern  or 
south  eastern  winds,  cause  the  tides  to  rise  so  high, 
as  to  impede  the  discharge  of  the  waters  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi into  the  gulf,  consequently  a  reflux,  which  is 
"  in  some  instances  equal  to  a  spring  freshet."  Will 
any  one  hesitate  to  admit,  that,  in  this  instance,  the 
current  of  this  river  was  checked,  retarded,  or  slacken- 
ed ?  and  if  in  this  instance,  does  it  not  follow,  that  it  is 
proportionately  slackened  in  the  common  tides,  that 
cause  the  river  at  New-Orleans,  to  swell?  I  answer, 
yes. 

From  this  view  it  appears,  in  the  first  place,  evi- 
dent, that  when  the  Mississippi  river  discharged  its 
waters  at  the  original  or  primitive  point,  where  there 
was  a  natural  slope,  and  no  obstruction  to  its  current, 
the  lands  in  its  neighbourhood  were  but  slightly  and 
seldom  overflowed.  Thus,  when  the  lands  on  its  bor- 
ders and  its  banks,  through  which  it  runs,  were,  by 
some  cause,  projected  into  the  gulf,  to  the  distance  of 
forty  miles  south  of  New-Orleans,  the  resistance  which 
I  have  mentioned  was  such  as  to  cause  a  reflux,  parti- 
cularly, during  the  spring  freshets  ;  and  such  as  to 
occasion  an  inundation  of  the  lands  adjacent. 

If  then  the  prolongation  of  the  Mississippi  into  the 
gulf  of  Mexico,  to  the  distance  of  forty  miles,  will  pro- 
duce this  change,  what  may  we  not  expect,  when  we 
find  it  extended  into  the  gulf  to  the  distance  of  fifty 
miles  farther,  or  about  ninety  miles,  in  a  right  line, 
from  :Vew-Oi'leans  to  the  extremity  of  the  land  at  the 
south  pass  ?  Need  we  be  surprised  that,  under  cer- 


tain  circumstances,  the  Minds  should  "roll  in  the 
water  from  the  gulf,  and  cause  sudden  rises  of  the 
river,  in  some  instances,  equal  to  a  spring  freshet." 
Need  we,  or  can  we  hesitate  to  admit,  that  the  lands 
adjacent  to  the  Mississippi  which,  at  some  remote  pe- 
riod of  time,  were  exempt  from  the  overflowings  of 
that  river,  should,  under  present  circumstances,  be  an- 
nually inundated  ?  Let  us  extend  our  views  of  the 
subject,  and  for  a  moment  contemplate  the  scene, 
which  must  occasionally  be  extended  over  nearly  the 
entire  surface  of  this  immense  district. 

1  have  hitherto  only  taken  into  consideration,  the 
probable  results  arising  or  growing  out  of  the  changes 
in  the  Mississippi.  It  becomes  necessary  to  bring  in- 
to view,  some  of  the  subordinate  streams,  that  have  a 
material  bearing  and  influence  in  this  business,  and 
which  flow  through  this  part  of  the  country. 

The  Lafourche,  Atchafalaya,  and  Teche  rivers, 
have  each  experienced,  from  some  cause,  a  conside- 
rable extension  or  prolongation  into  the  gulf,  as  well 
as  the  Mississippi ;  and  each  of  them  from  their  slug- 
gish movements,  together  with  the  Sabine,  Calcasa, 
Mermentau,  and  Vermillion  rivers,  are  subject,  from 
the  operations  of  strong  southerly  gales,  to  a  re-flux 
proportionate  to  that  of  the  Mississippi. 

When  the  currents  of  all  these  rivers  experience  this 
check,  and  that  of  the  Mississippi,  from  the  same 
cause,  and  at  the  same  time,  is  thrown  back,  so  as 
to  equal  a  spring  freshet,  what  can  we  expect  but  an 
inundation  of  the  country  to  a  great  distance  ?  And, 


388 

moreover,  if  this  should  occur  at  the  time  of  the  annual 
inundation,  or  spring  freshets,  need  we  wonder  that 
great  and  important  changes  should  be  going  on,*  in 
many  parts  of  this  territory,  by  the  annual  operations 
of  conflicting  currents  ?  That  lands,  which  at  some 
distant  and  unknown  period  of  time,  were,  probably, 
inhabited,  and  on  which  mounds  or  tumuli  have  been, 
erected,  should  experience  such  a  change,  that  "  Not 
even  a  village  of  savages  could  have  existed  through- 
out the  year,  within  several  miles  of  this  place." 

"  The  spot  where  they  (the  tumuli)  are  situated,  is 
more  dreary  and  sunken  than  any  part  of  the  swamp,  "f 

^Need  we  hesitate  to  admit  that,  under  such  circum- 
stances, alluvial  deposites  should  be  yearly  accumulat- 
ing upon  lands,  previously  formed  and  once,  probably, 
exempt  even  from  partial  inundations  by  water ;  and 
where  the  stately  oak  and  lofty  cypress  were  at  liberty 
to  shoot  up,  and  arrive  at  maturity,  undisturbed  and 
uninjured  by  the  inroads  of  that  element ;  but  whose 
naked  trunks  are  now  standing  leafless  and  dead,  sur- 
rounded by  water  in  the  midst  of  lagoons  ?J 

It  appears  that  in  this  case  no  one  can  long  remain 
in  suspense,  or,  for  a  moment,  cherish  a  single  doubt. 

It  is  this  view  of  the  subject  that  led  to  the  remark, 
that  in  it  the  welfare  and  happiness  of,  not  only  the 
present,  but  future  generations  are  deeply  involved. 

A  few  observations  illustrative  of  this  fact,  although 
not  strictly  connected  with  the  general  views  of  this 

*  Darby's  Louisiana.        t  Do.  p.  118.        \  Do.  p.  31. 


389 

Work,  will  not,  it  is  hoped,  be  considered  unseasona- 
ble or  inexpedient. 

In  attempting  this,  it  is  not  intended  to  bring  into 
yiew  all  the  circumstances,  that  are  connected  with  the 
subject,  as  it  would  unavoidably  increase  the  number 
of  pages,  which  has  already  exceeded  the  limits  pre- 
scribed. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  must  appear  obvious, 
that  the  Mississippi  river,  has,  at  different  epochs, 
discharged  its  waters  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  at  dif- 
ferent points  in  its  course,  as  at  New-Orleans,  &c.  but 
principally,  and  more  probably,  not  far  from  the  head 
of  Black  Lake,  or  about  fifty  miles  above  the  efflux  of 
that  river  at  the  Balize.  From  this  point,  at  least,  to 
its  present  termination,  it  may  be  said  to  flow  through 
a  self-created  channel. 

The  consequences  resulting  from  this  extension  of 
the  banks  into  the  gnlf,  have  already  been  taken  no- 
tice of;  but  as  these  results  do  not  depend,  exclusively 
upon  the  prolongation  of  the  river,  and  its  banks,  it  is 
necessary  to  examine  another  circumstance,  intimate- 
ly connected  with  the  subject,  and  by  no  means  of  the 
least  importance. 

I  have  observed,  that  as  the  banks  of  a  river  are  ex- 
tended into  a  bay  or  gulf,  beyond  its  original  point  of 
discharge,  either  by  artificial  means,  or  by  deposites  of 
alluvion,  its  current  is  checked  or  retarded  in  propor- 
tion to  the  distance,  which  it  has  to  pass  beyond  tide 
water,  or  the  level  of  the  bay  or  gulf,  and  the  alluvion 
which  icas  suspended  by  the  current,  is  deposited  at 


390 

the  bottom.  By  this  process,  the  bed  or  channel  of  the 
river  becomes  more  and  more  elevated,  until  there  is 
no  longer  any  descent,  and  the  capacity  of  the  channel 
is  insufficient  to  retain  its  waters.  Hence,  in  common 
tides,  a  considerable  reflux  :  but  in  violent  storms,  or 
gales  of  wind,  a  reflux  that  overflows  the  surrounding 
country,  causing  disruptions  of  its  banks  at  some  point 
or  points,  that  will  afford  a  descent  of  its  waters  into 
the  sea. 

This  has  been,  and  will  continue  to  be  universally 
the  case  with  all  rivers,  whose  point  of  discharge  has 
been  extended  into  a  bay,  or  gulf,  beyond  that  of  their 
original  or  primitive  efflux. 

This  has  been  one  of  the  principal  agents  in  the 
formation  and  extension  of  the  deltas  of  the  Po,  the 
Indus,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Nile  ;  and  also  in  the  fre- 
quent disruptions  of  their  banks,  thereby  forming  low 
sunken  places,  or  lagoons  of  stagnant  waters,  the 
never-failing  sources  of  pestilence  and  disease,  among 
the  innocent  and  unsuspecting  inhabitants  who  may  be 
situated  within  reach  of  their  poisonous  exhalations. 

It  was  by  this  cause  that  the  bed  of  the  Nile  was 
elevated  so  far  above  the  adjacent  vallies,  that  it  be- 
came necessary  to  attend  with  the  greatest  diligence, 
to  preserve  the  banks  in  repair,  lest,  by  the  force  of  the 
waters,  a  breach  should  be  made,  and  the  whole  coun- 
try be  inundated.*  And  it  is  this  which  may  be  said  to 
be  in  full  operation,  at  this  time,  on  the  Mississippi,  at 

*  See  remarks  on  the  delta  of  the  Po,  Indus,  and  Nile,  chap.  ,13. 


391 

least  from  Fort  St.  Philip  to  the  Balize,  above  which 
it  has  already  laid  the  foundation  for,  and  actually 
formed  the  first  delta  that,  in  all  probability,  ever 
divided  the  current  of  that  river. 

When  it  is  considered  that  all  the  lands  on  the  bor- 
der of  the  Mississippi,  below  Baton  Rouge,  are  called 
the  delta,  this  assertion  may  be  viewed  as  a  strange  de- 
reliction from  truth,  and  in  direct  opposition  to  the  ge- 
neral opinion  of,  what  is  considered,  an  established 
fact. 

A  careful  examination,  it  is  believed,  will,  never- 
theless, convince  any  one,  that  however  strange  it  may 
appear,  it  is  not  without  some  foundation  ;  and  for  the 
following  reasons  : 

Agreeable  to  Mr.  Darby's  map,  there  is  not  a  point 
from  New  Orleans  to  Fort  St.  Philip,  where  there  are 
manifest  indications  of  an  actual  delta,  formed  by  a  se- 
paration or  division  of  the  current  of  the  river.  On 
the  contrary,  there  are  a  number  of  places  by  which  it 
can  be  proved,  that  such  a  thing  never  could  take  place 
without  producing  a  state  of  things  very  different  from 
the  present. 

But  these  I  shall  not,  at  this  time,  attempt  to  dis- 
cuss; but  content  myself  with  a  view  of  the  distance 
from  Fort  St.  Philip  to  the  head  of  the  present  delta. 

From  this  Fort  to  the  point  of  the  delta,  the  distance 
is  about  twenty-five  miles,  in  a  right  line.  Through 
this  extent,  the  whole  current  of  the  Mississippi  river 
passes  between  two  banks  of  land,  the  mean  breadth 
of  which,  inclusive,  is  only  six  miles.  This  being  the 
case,  caii  any  person  suppose  that  if  the  current  of  the 


39S 

river  had  ever  been  divided,  so  as  to  form  a  delta,  at 
any  point  between  New-Orleans  and  Fort  St.  Philip, 
that  branches  of  it  would  not  now  exist  at  Plaquemine 
bend,  or  Fort  St.  Philip,  through  Bayou  Madrigas  on 
the  east,  and  Bayou  Liard  on  the  west?  Can  any  per- 
son believe,  that  if  the  river  had  ever  been  divided  at 
this  point,  or  at  any  other  between  it  and  the  efflux  of 
the  river,  that  it  would  not  have  produced  the  same  or 
similar  effects,  that  it  has  at  the  different  branches  that 
are  now  formed  ;  where,  instead  of  a  strip  of  land 
twenty-five  miles  in  length,  with  a  mean  breadth  of 
only  six,  the  extreme  points  of  land  at  the  east  and 
west  branches,  which  form  the  base  of  a  triangle,  the 
apex  of  which  is  the  point  of  the  delta,  are  distant  forty- 
two  miles  ? — I  can  scarce  believe  an  answer  necessary. 

Hence,  when  we  find  that  the  currents  of  the  rivers 
Po,  the  Indus,  the  Ganges,  and  particularly  the  Nile, 
may  be  said  to  have  disputed  every  foot  of  ground 
with  the  deltas,  and  in  which  they  have  been  driven 
before  them,  as  with  the  Nile,  where  the  delta  has  re- 
treated from  Memphis  to  the  distance  of  many  leagues 
below  ;  the  conclusion  is,  that  the  present  is  the  first 
and  only  delta  formed  by  the  Mississippi  river. 

This  opinion,  however  novel  and  highly  improbable 
it  may  seem,  will  appear  much  less  doubtful,  when  we 
examine  some  of  the  prominent  features  peculiar  to 
this  river,  and  on  which  many  of  the  existing  pheno- 
mena of  that  region  materially  depend. 

The  most  important  and  only  one,  that  I  shall  bring 
into  view  in  the  present  instance,  is  that  of  its  current 


393 

It  is  well  known,  or  at  least  generally  believed,  that  iu 
point  of  magnitude,  in  all  respects,  the  river  Mississippi 
has  not  its  equal  upon  this  globe.  That  in  no  one, 
(the  St.  Lawrence  exccpted,)  is  there  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  water  discharged  into  the  ocean,  in  the  same 
given  time. 

Hence,  from  the  amazing  torrent  that  is,  in  ceaseless 
motion,  poured  into  the  gulf,  and  this  urged  on  or  pro- 
pelled by  an  almost  equal  volume  of  water,  that  is, 
descending  an  inclined  plane  of  three  thousand  miles 
in  extent,  and  accelerated  too  by  numerous  auxiliary 
branches,  some  of  which  are  nearly  of  an  equal  length, 
it  has  for  ages  literally  forced  its  way  in  defiance  of  the 
waters  of  the  gulf  and  the  tides  of  the  sea,  to  the  head 
of  the  present  delta,  without  having  experienced  a 
check  sufficient  to  cause  the  depositing  of  its  alluvion, 
and  the  elevation  of  the  bed  of  the  river  to  a  height  suf- 
ficiently great,  to  occasion  the  overflowing  of  the  river 
and  lateral  branches. 

Here,  as  if  jealous  of  her  rights,  the  parent  ocean 
opposed  its  bold  career,  and  turned  aside  its  force. 
The  consequences  have  been  the  formation  of  deltas, 
that  are  annually  increasing  and  extending,  and  which 
will,  one  day,  prove  a  source  of  evils  more  to  be  feared 
by  the  inhabitants  of  these  fertile  regions,  than  those 
which  may  flow  from  any  other  earthly  source. 

few,  perhaps,  are  disposed  to  view  the  subject  in 
this  light.  It  has,  nevertheless,  excited  the  well- 
grounded  apprehensions  of  many — and  to  it  the  atten- 
tion of  the  community  at  large,  at  least,  in  that  portion 

01 


394 

of  the  country,  has  been  called  by  the  observations 
and  remarks  of  Mr.  Darby.  But  whether  his  judi- 
cious opinions  and  well-meaning  efforts,  will  have  the 
effect,  of  exciting  the  spirit,  and  calling  into  action  the 
exertions  of  the  people  of  that  country,  to  avert  the 
evils  with  which  they  may  be  threatened — or  whether 
the  plan  which  he  has  suggested  is  the  most  eligible, 
or  most  likely  to  prove  effectual,  (for  pretty  certain  it 
is,  that  the  thing  is  practicable,  and  the  means  ex- 
tremely obvious  ;)  or  even,  whether  it  is  the  duty  ex- 
clusively incumbent  upon  them,  without  any  aid  or  as- 
sistance from  the  General  Government,  who  must  have, 
see,  and  feel,  an  interest  in  the  security,  welfare  and 
prosperity  of  that  country,  or  not,  would  betray  an  in- 
excusable presumption  in  me  to  declare.^ 

This  much,  however,  1  may  venture  to  assert,  with- 
out infringing,  I  trust,  the  least  important  rules  of  pro- 
priety ;  that  if  the  subject  be  not  seasonably  and  effec- 
tually attended  to  by  either  one  or  the  other;  the  in- 
habitants of  the  districts  on  the  borders  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, will,  if  not  in  the  present,  at  least  in  future  ge- 
nerations, experience  the  visitations  of  an  enemy  more 
fearful  in  its  consequences,  and  more  to  be  di-eaded, 
than  the  sanguinary  hordes  of  a  Packenham — An 
enemy  that,  in  the  midst  of  plenty,  cheerfulness  and 
comfort,  will  lay  waste  both  towns  and  cities,  and 
spread  desolation  through  the  land  ;  arid  which  the 
united  forces  of  the  country,  aided  by  the  hardy  vete- 
rans of  Tennessee,  with  the  victorious  Hero  of  Or- 
leans at  their  head,  can  never  repel  or  subdue. 


AGENDA. 


As  facts  are  essentially  important  in  all  researches 
instituted  for  the  promotion  of  science ;  the  following 
AGENDA,  or  SELECTION  OF  QUERIES,  is  respectfully 
recommended  to  the  attention  of  Geologists,  Mineralo- 
gists, and  other  persons  of  correct  observation,  as  be- 
ing intimately  connected  with  the  subjects  contained  in 
this  work,  and  calculated  to  aid  and  assist  in  all  future 
researches  of  a  similar  kind. 


OF   MOUNTAINS. 

1st.  What  is  their  mean  height,  and  what  their 
course  or  direction  ? 

Sd.  Is  one  side  of  a  range  of  mountains,  or  hills, 
more  abrupt,  steep,  and  broken,  than  the  other  ?  If  so, 
which  side  is  it,  "  and  to  what  point  of  the  compass  is 
it  opposed  ?"* 

*  Question  by  the  London  Geological  Society. 


396 

3d.  If  a  steep  and  craggy  appearance  present  itself 
on  one  side  of  a  mountain,  does  it  face  an  extensive 
valley  through  which  runs  a  river,  large  or  small  ?  If 
so,  what  is  the  direction  of  its  current,  and  the  greatest 
height  to  which  such  river  has  been  known  to  rise, 
from  rains,  melting  of  snows,  &c.  ? 

4th.  If  such  river  exist,  is  its  general  course  through 
the  middle  of  the  valley,\or  does  it  run  any  distance 
near  the  foot  of  the  mountain  ? 

5th.  If  a  river  pass  either  obliquely  or  at  right  an- 
gles through  the  mountain,  where  rocks  are  presented 
to  view,  to  any  considerable  height  above  the  water, 
are  there  any  appearances  of  the  operations  of  currents 
upon  the  rocks,  above  the  greatest  height  that  such 
river  has  been  known  to  rise  ?  If  so,  what  appears  to 
have  been  the  direction  of  such  currents  ?  This  may 
be  easily  determined  by  the  following  remarks  : 

1st.  The  parts,  or  points  of  rocks,  against  which  the 
currents  were  opposed,  will  present  a  smoother  sur- 
face and  more  worn  than  the  side  which  looks  down 
the  stream,  or  against  which  the  current  was  not  op- 
posed. 

gdly.  Pot-like  holes,  formed  in  the  rocks  by  the  op- 
eration of  currents,  are  often  observable  in  situations 
far  above  the  present  level  of  any  streams  in  their  vi- 
cinity. A  careful  examination  of  these,  will  enable 
the  observer  to  determine  the  course  of  the  current  by 
\vhich  they  were  formed — and  by  the  following 
marks  : — The  side  over  which  the  current  flows  into 
the  hole,  is  generally  shelving  under,  on  the  up-stream 


397 

side.  This  is  occasioned  in  the  following  manner: 
When  the  current  is  propelled  into  the  pot-like  hole, 
the  pebbles  which  are  already  within  it,  are  driven 
with  considerable  force  against  the  up-stream  side.  If 
they  occasionally  fail  into  the  current,  w  hen  it  strikes 
against  the  lower  or  down- stream  side,  they  are  forci- 
bly thrown  back  again,  and  thus  kept  playing  against 
the  upper  side,  by  which  means  the  hole  becomes 
shelving  under.  Lastly,  the  sand  and  pebbles  that 
are  occasionally  driven  out.  produce,  by  abrasion  upon 
the  down- stream  side,  an  ewer-like  process  or  gutter, 
which  is  very  perceptible  in  many  of  them. 

6th.  If  there  are  any  appearances  of  a  part  or  por- 
tion of  the  side  of  a  mountain  having  slidden  down  to 
its  base,  what  appears  to  have  been  the  most  probable 
cause  of  its  removal  ?  and  what  its  original  height 
above  the  mountain's  base  ? — And  moreover,  is  there 
any  narrow7,  but  extensive  valley  or  channel  through 
subordinate  hills,  and  through  which  a  current  may 
have  run,  directed  against  a  point  where  such  portion 
of  earth,  or  rocks,  have  slidden  off?  If  so,  what  is  its 
breadth,  extent,  and  direction,  in  relation  to  the  ridge, 
or  range  of  the  mountain  ? 

7th.  Are  there  any  rallies,  or  gaps,  that  intersect  a 
range  of  mountains,  either  strait  or  circuitous?  and 
what  is  the  greatest  probable  height  of  the  highest 
point  in  such  ralley  or  gap,  above  the  mountain's  base  ? 

8th.  Are  there  any  appearances  of  the  operations  of 
currents  in  such  rallies,  either  in  the  earth  or  upon  the 
rocks  that  may  be  exposed  ;  and  above  the  height  at 


398 

which  the  streams  that  at  present  flow  in  them  ?  If  so, 
at  what  height  ahove  the  bottom  of  the  vallies  do  they 
run,  and  what  appears  to  have  been  the  direction  of 
such  current  ? 

9th.  Are  there  any  considerable  quantities  of  allu- 
vial grounds,  where  the  waters  of  such  vallies  are  dis- 
charged into  the  vallies  adjacent  to  the  mountains  ? 
and  have  they  increased  materially  within  the  memory 
of  man  ?  If  so,  what  is  their  extent,  and  probable  in- 
crease, annually  ? 

10th.  Are  there  to  be  found  on  the  tops  or  sides  of 
mountains,  composed  principally  of  granite,  or  primi- 
tive limestone,  detached  masses  of  transition,  or  se- 
condary rocks,  out  of  place  ?  If  So,  on  which  side  of 
the  mountain  are  they  found,  and  at  what  Jieight  above 
its  base  ?  And  also,  of  what  size,  description,  or  cha- 
racter, are  such  masses  ;  at  what  distance  are  such 
rocks  found  in  place,  and  in  what  direction  from  the 
masses  so  found  ? 

The  same  remarks  are  applicable  to  mountains,  the 
rocks  of  which  are  of  a  different  order,  (viz.) 

llth.  Are  there  to  be  found  on  transition  mountains, 
masses  of  secondary  rocks  ?  on  which  side,  and  at 
what  height  ?  At  what  distance,  and  in  what  direction, 
are  rocks  of  the  same  kind  found  in  place  ? 

l£th.  On  a  range  of  mountains  of  secondary  forma- 
tion, are  there  to  be  found  masses  of  primitive  rocks 
such  as  granite,  or  those  of  transition  ?  &c.  &c. 


399 


OF   EXTENSIVE,    BROAD,    OR    NARROW   VALLIES,    OR    IN- 
TERVALS. 

1st.  Are  they  generally  level,  or  broken  and  inter- 
rupted ?  If  of  the  former  kind,  do  they  appear  to  be 
composed  in  any  degree  of  alluvion?  This  may  be 
determined  by  several  means.  1st.  By  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  being  either  of  sand,  or  gravel,  and  differing 
materially  from  that  at  the  bases,  and  on  the  sides  of 
adjacent  mountains.  2dly.  By  ditching,  canaling, 
sinking  wells  and  other  works,  by  which  the  structure 
and  character  of  the  earth  beneath  the  surface  is  ex- 
posed to  view.  If  composed  of  alternate  layers  of 
sand,  clay,  and  pebbles,  in  horizontal,  inclined,  or  un- 
dulating strata,  with  occasional  deposites  of  fossil 
wood,  or  organick  remains,  it  may  reasonably  be  consi- 
dered as  alluvial.  If  on  the  contrary,  it  is  of  an  uni- 
form texture,  and  presenting  none  of  the  above  marks, 
it  may  be  considered  as  not  having  been  disturbed,  and 
as  original. 

2d.  If  the  earth,  thus  exposed,  appears  stratafied 
and  horizontal,  what  is  the  order  in  which  they  occur, 
and  to  what  depth  has  this  appearance  been  known  to 
extend  ? 

3d.  If  the  strata  are  inclined  and  undulating,  or 
ware-like,  what  is  the  dip  or  inclination  of  such  strata, 
and  what  the  general  direction  of  their  dip  ? 

4?th.  If  pebbles  occur  in  such  strata,  are  they  in 
aids,  or  nests  like,  or  uniformly  distributed  to  any 


400 

considerable  extent  ?  Are  they  rolled,  or  rounded,  and 
of  what  size  ? 

5th.  Are  they  uniformly  of  one  kind  in  substance, 
or  different ;  and  what  are  the  kinds  ? 

6th.  Are  there  rocks  of  a  similar  substance,  in  place, 
at  any  distance  from  them,  and  what  is  the  distance 
and  direction  ? 

7th.  if  the  rallies  are  broken  and  interrupted,  is  it 
by  spurs  of  mountains,  ridges  of  rocks,  or  isolated 
hills,  composed  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  pebbles  ? 

8th.  If  of  spurs  of  mountains  extending  to  any  dis- 
tance into  the  valley,  are  there  any  appearances  on  ei- 
ther side,  of  the  operations  of  currents  which  may  have 
been  opposed  to,  or  set  against  them  ?  If  so,  what  are 
the  appearances,  and  on  which  side  of  the  spurs  in  re- 
lation to  the  compass,  are  they  ? 

9th.  If  interrupted  by  ridges  of  rocks,  of  what  kind 
are  they,  and  in  what  direction  do  they  run  in  relation 
to  the  valley,  and  do  they  discover  any  marks  of  abra- 
sion by  the  operation  of  running  water,  &c.  ? 

10th.  If  interrupted  by  isolated  hills,  composed 
mostly,  or  in  part,  of  rolled  pebbles,  what  is  their  cha- 
racter, and  are  there  rocks  of  the  same  substance  in 
place,  in  any  direction  from  such  collection  of  peb- 
bles ?  If  so,  what  is  the  direction  from  such  hills,  and 
at  what  distance  ? 

llth.  If  such  accumulation  of  pebbles  are  to  be 
found  in  a  valley,  are  there  any  deep  and  extensive  ra- 
vines, vallies,  or  gaps,  in  the  neighbouring  mountains, 
or  hills,  through  which  a  violent  current  may  have  ran. 


401 

and  by  which  such  pebbles  may  have  been  transported 
to  some  distance  in  the  low  grounds,  where  they  are 
found  ?  If  so,  in  what  direction  are  the  vallies  from 
the  pebbles  thus  collected,  and  at  what  distance  ? 

llth.  If  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  pebbles 
so  collected,  may  have  been  transported  from  the 
mountains  by  a  current,  or  currents,  and  they  are 
throicn  up  into  hills,  or  small  eminences;  it  is  a  fair 
conclusion,  that  the  currents  by  which  they  were  trans- 
ported, were  checked  or  opposed  in  their  course,  by 
opposite  or  lateral  currents  from  other  directions.  To 
determine  this,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  whether 
there  are  any  deep  vallies  or  gaps,  through  the  moun- 
tains or  hills,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley,  where 
such  pebbles  are  found,  and  through  which  currents 
may  have  flowed  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  first. 

This  fact  may  be  often  observed  in  the  high  and 
sudden  rise  of  waters,  by  heavy  rains,  melting  of 
snows,  &c.  In  order,  however,  to  obtain  an  accurate 
view,  and  correct  information  on  this  point,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  examine  the  subject  from  an  elevated  situation; 
as  on  the  side  or  top  of  a  mountain,  from  which  the 
eye  can  take  in  at  one  view,  all  the  narrowings  and 
widenings  of  the  great  valley ;  the  sinuosities  of  the 
mountains  ;  and  the  cross  cuts  or  gaps  of  the  mountains, 
that  open  into  the  great  valley  or  vallies. 

12th.  If  from  such  a  view,  there  should  be  found 
vallies,  or  gaps,  through  the  opposite  range  of  moun- 
tains, what  is  their  breadth,  extent,  course,  and  di- 
rection, in  relation  to  the  accumulated*  masses  of  peb 


403 

bles,  or  other  substances  differing  from  the  common 
earth  ? 

13th.  If  transverse  vallies  occur  (so  called  by  Saus- 
sure,  in  contradistinction  to  longitudinal  vallies,  which 
are  such  as  have  an  extensive  range  between  two 
parallel  ridges  or  mountains,)  are  there  any  appear- 
ances of  the  operations  of  currents  from  the  lateral 
vallies  ;  such  as  hillocks  of  sand,  pebbles,  boulders, 
or  rocks,  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the  transverse  with 
the  longitudinal  valley  ?  If  so,  in  what  direction  do 
the  transverse  vallies  run,  and  on  which  hand  do  the 
deposites  appear  ;  whether  on  the  right  or  left  ? 

14th.  "  If  the  lateral  valleys,  which  terminate  at  a 
principal  valley,  as  the  branches  of  a  tree  at  its  trunk, 
correspond  or  not ;  or,  in  other  words,  whether  the 
branches  of  that  trunk  are  opposite  or  alternate?" — 
Saussure. 

"  The  answers  to  these  two  questions  are  very  im- 
portant, for  the  solution  of  this  question  :  whether  the 
valleys  have  been  excavated  by  currents  of  the  sea?" 
— tfaussure. 

15th.  If  a  valley,  on  one  side  of  a  range  of  moun- 
tains, appears  to  be  underlayed  with  rocks,  primitive 
or  secondary  ;  stratified  or  unstratified  ;  horizontal  or 
inclined,  are  the  rocks,  if  any,  in  the  valley  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  mountain  or  range,  of  the  same  kind, 
and  arranged  in  the  same^  order,  so  as  to  afford  any 
reason  to  believe  that  they  underlay  the  mountain? 
This  is  a  question  of  no  small  importance  to  the  geo* 
logist. 


403 

I6tb.  If  a  valley  occurs,  of  great  or  small  extent, 
surrounded  by  hills  or  mountains,  is  there  reason  to 
believe  that  it  was  ever  a  lake  ?  If  so,  what  are  the 
reasons  ? 

47th.  If  it  is  supposed  that  in  such  a  situation,  a 
lake  ever  existed,  what  are  the  most  probable  means  by 
which  it  was  filled  up  ? 

18th.  Is  there  one,  or  more,  natural  openings  through 
the  surrounding  hills  or  mountains,  at  a  small  elevation 
above  the  present  level  of  the  valley  ?  If  so,  of  what 
description  are  those  openings,  and  in  what  direction 
in  relation  to  such  valley  ? 

19th.  If  there  are  no  openings  of  the  above  descrip- 
tion, are  there  any  appearances  of  a  disruption  of  the 
hills  or  mountains,  that  surround  such  valley  ?  If  so, 
what  are  the  appearances,  and' on  which  side,  or  sides 
of  the  valley  are  they  ? 

20th.  If  there  are  appearances  of  a  disruption  of  the 
hills  &c.  by  water,  (which  must  be  supposed,  if  the 
lake  was  filled  up  with  alluvion.)  what  is  the  most  pro- 
bable cause  of  its  having  been  put  in  operation  ? 

21st.  Are  there  any  appearances  of  a  neighbouring 
valley,  which  may  have,  likewise,  been  a  lake,  and  at 
a  higher  elevation  than  the  first  ?  If  so,  what  are  the 
appearances  ? 

22d.  In  this  valley,  where  a  lake  is  supposed  to 
have  existed,  are  there  any  detached  masses  of  rocks, 
either  rounded  or  angular,  buried  in  the  earth,  mixed 
with  the  soil,  or  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the 
ground  ?  If  so,  of  what  description  are  they,  and  in 


<104 

what  direction,  and  at  what  distance,  are  rocks  of  the 
same  kind  found  in  place  ? 

23d.  In  digging  into  the  earth  in  such  a  situation, 
are  there  to  be  found  organick  remains  of  vegetables  : 
or  those  of  animals?,  either  land  or  sequatick? 

34th.  If  of  vegetables,  or  fossil  wood,  of  what  de- 
scription are  they  ? 

25th.  If  of  land  animals,  are  they  of  a  species  that 
are  indigenous,  foreign,  or  of  such  as  are  extinct  ? 

26th.  If  of  sequatick,  are  there  analogous  to  be  found 
living?  If  so,  where  are  they  to  be  found,  and  of  what 
kinds  are  they  ? 

27th.  Are  such  remains  found  only  at  a  certain 
depth  ?  or  are  they  distributed  generally  through  the 
alluvial  mass  ?  If  the  former,  at  what  depth  are  they 
found  ? 

28th.  In  a  situation  where  it  is  supposed,  a  lake 
once  existed,  is  the  surface  of  the  valley  generally 
level  ?  or  is  there  a  gradual  descent  from  one  side,  or 
end,  to  the  other  ?  If  the  latter,  in  what  direction  is 
the  descent  ? 

89th.  What  is  the  probable  height  of  such  a  valley, 
or  valleys,  above  the  level  of  the  ocean  ? 

OF  RIVERS. 

1st.  "  What  is  the  extent  of  their  course,  and  their 
inclination  from  their  sources  to  their  mouth." — (Saus- 
sure.)  Do  they  discharge  their  waters  immediately 
into  the  sea,  or  bay ;  or  into  a  gulf,  or  arm  of  a  bay  ? 


JBt-- 


405 

2d.  Is  the  country  through  which  they  run,  gene- 
rally mountainous  or  hilly?  or  is  it  low  and  flat? 

3d.  Wbat  is  the  mean  rate  at  which  the  current  ge- 
nerally flows  ? 

4th.  What  is  the  highest  rate  at  which  the  current 
of  a  river  flows,  in  any  part  of  its  course,  for  any  con- 
siderable distance,  during,  or  at  nearly  low  water  ? 

5th.  Is  the  water  of  a  river  or  rivers,  clear  and 
transparent  to  any  considerable  depth,  during  the  win- 
ter and  summer  months  ? 

6th.  If  the  current  of  a  river  is  rapid,  for  any  dis- 
tance, in  those  seasons,  does  there  appear  to  be  any  al- 
luvion mixed  with  the  water ;  or  sand  moving  upon 
the  bottom  P 

7th.  If  the  course  of  a  river  is  between  two  ranges 
of  mountains,  with  extensive  meadows,  or  intervales 
on  its  borders,  are  they  rocky  or  alluvial  ? 

8th.  If  alluvial,  what  is  the  mean  height  of  the 
banks  ? 

9th.  Are  they  steep  and  broken,  or  gradually  de- 
scending towards  the  water  ? 

10th.  If 'high  and  broken,  what  are  the  appearances 
which  they  present  ? 

llth.  Are  there  any  appearances  of  fossil  wood,  or 
other  organick  remains  to  be  seen  in  the  banks,  and 
of  what  kind  are  they  ? 

12th.  If  in  such  banks  organick  remains  are  to  be 
seen,  are  they  af,  or  below  low  water  mark,  or  gradual- 
ly distributed  in  the  earth  from  the  water  to  the  top  of 
the  banks  ? 


406 

Ou  many  large  rivers,  and,  in  some  instances,  on 
smaller  ones,  there  are  two  and  sometimes  three  allu- 
vial banks  on  each  side,  except  where  the  river  passes 
through  a  mountainous  district.  On  this  important 
subject,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  offer  a  few  remarks 
previous  to  proposing  any  interrogatories. 

The  lands  immediately  bordering  upon  a  river,  and 
which  form  the  first  bank  on  each  side,  are  generally 
considered  as  the  intervales  or  meadows,  and,  if  allu- 
vial, have  generally  a  gradual  descent  from  the  river 
for  a  half  a  mile,  and  from  that  to  two  miles  or  more, 
where  there  commences  another  bank  or  range  of  hills, 
likewise  of  alluvion,  from  twenty  to  sixty  feet  or  more 
in  height.  This  second  tract  of  country  or  land,  gene- 
rally extends  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  varies  in 
breadth  from  one  to  several  miles. 

These  two,  and  sometimes  three  banks  or  tiers  of 
alluvial  land,  have  been  distinctly  mentioned  by  seve- 
ral travellers,  as  occurring  on  many  rivers  ;  but  no  parti- 
cular description  has  hitherto  been  given. of  them,  that 
1  can  find,  neither  have  any  remarks  been  offered  that 
are  calculated  to  make  us  acquainted  with  their  histo- 
ry, or  the  cause  of  their  formation.  In  a  geological 
point  of  view,  they  are  extremely  interesting  and  im- 
portant ;  so  much  so  that,  on  a  careful  examination  of 
the  order  of  their  arrangement,  in  relation  to  the  river 
on  which  they  lie,  and  the  adjacent  mountains  or  hills, 
and  their  internal  structure,  no  one  will  hesitate  to  ad- 
mit, that  they  distinctly  point  to  two  important  epochs 
or  events,  that  have  taken  place  upon  this  globe,  and 


407 

by  which  they  were  probably  formed.  It  is  from  this 
view,  that  I  am  induced  to  invite  the  attention  of  the 
naturalist  more  particularly  to  them,  and  to  propose  the 
following  questions  for  his  observance. 

13th.  Whenever  two  or  three  alluvial  banks,  of  the 
above  description  occur,  what  is  the  course  of  the  river 
through  the  entire  extent  of  such  district? 

1  mention  "  such  district/'  because  in  some  cases,  a 
spur  of  a  mountain,  or  ridge  of  rocks,  crosses  a  valley, 
breaks  off  at  a  river,  and  interrupts  the  extension  of 
those  alluvial  banks,  and  also  occasions  a  bend  or  dif- 
ference in  the  course  of  the  river,  below  which  the  al- 
luvial banks  occur  again,  &c. 

14th.  What  is  the  mean  breadth  of  the  first  inter- 
vales, or  alluvial  banks  next  to  the  river,  and  what 
their  height? 

15th.  What  is  the  mean  height  and  breadth  of  the 
second  alluvial  banks,  on  each  side  of  the  river  ? 

16th.  Do  they  ascend  or  descend  towards  the  moun- 
tains or  hills  ? 

17th.  Of  what  do  those  districts  appear  to  be  com- 
posed, at  a  small  depth  below  the  surface,  and  to  the 
greatest  depth  to  which  they  have  been  explored? 

18th.  Of  the  component  parts,  which  is  the  most 
predominant;  sand  or  clay,  &c.  ? 

19th.  Do  springs  of  water  occur,  at  the  foot  of  the 
second  alluvial  banks  generally  ? 

20th.  Have  mineral  springs  been  known  to  occur  in 
those  districts,  and  what  are  their  properties? 


408 

21st.  Are  they  resorted  to  as  such,  and  are  they 
perpetual  ? 

22d.  In  digging  for  wells,  and  other  purposes,  in 
the  second  alluvial  plain,  has  an  instance  occurred  in 
which  it  has  been  carried  below  the  level  of  the  lower, 
or  first  intervale  on  the  river  ?  If  so,  what  were  the 
appearances  ? 

23d.  Were  there  any  appearances  of  fossil  wood,  or 
other  organick  remains  to  he  seen,  particularly  on  a 
level  with  the  first  bank  or  alluvial  district  ? 

2 1th.  Are  there  to  be  found  in  the  earth  upon  the 
second  plain,  irregular  masses  or  boulders  of  rocks, 
out  of  place  ? 

25th.  If  so,  are  they  exclusively  confined  to  the  up- 
per plain,  or  are  they  alike  distributed  in  the  earth, 
both  in  the  first  as  well  as  second  bank? 

26th.  Of  what  description  are  they,  and  in  what  di- 
rection, and  at  what  distance  are  rocks  of  the  same 
kind  found  in  place  P 

27th.  Have  beds  of  salt  or  fresh  water  shells,  or 
shell- marie,  been  found  in  either  of  those  banks  ?  If 
so,  which  bank  is  it,  and  of  which  kind  of  shells,  and 
at  what  depth  are  they  found  ? 

28th.  Are  there  rocks,  shells,  &c.  to  be  found  in  the 
alluvial  banks  on  both  sides  of  a  river,  or  only  on  one 
side  ?  If  the  latter,  which  side  is  it? 

29th.  Are  the  alluvial  banks  or  intervales  on  one 
side  of  a  river,  generally  of  a  greater  breadth  than 
those  on  the,  opposite  side  ?  If  so,  on  which  side  do 


409 

those  of  the  greatest  breadth  lie,  and  what  is  the  diffe- 
rence from  those  on  the  opposite  side  ? 

30th.  If  a  river  has  a  southerly  course,  from  any 
point,  between  north  west  and  north  east,  and  after 
running  through  a  mountainous  or  rocky  district,  en- 
ters upon  a  district  entirely  alluvial,  are  there  to  be 
found  in  the  latter  district,  masses  of  rocks  and  rolled 
pebbles  of  the  same  description  as  those  through 
which  the  river  passes  above  ?  If  so,  how  far  do  they 
extend  in  the  alluvial  soil  ? 

31st.  Are  the  pebbles  uniformly  distributed  through 
the  soil,  on  both  sides  of  a  river,  or  are  they  more 
abundant  on  one  side  than  the  other  ? 

3Sd.  If,  as  before,  a  small  river  has  a  southerly 
course,  through  a  rocky  district  of  country,  and  in  its 
descent,  receives  an  auxiliary  branch  from  an  easterly 
direction,  are  not  rolled  pebbles  more  abundant,  in  the 
south  and  west  bank  of  the  principal  stream,  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  auxiliary  branch  ? 

33d.  Wherever  rolled  pebbles  prevail  on  the  bor- 
ders of  rivers,  creeks,  &c. ;  are  they  not  found  in 
greater  quantities  on  the  banks  on  the  south  side,  than 
in  those  on  the  north  ? 

84th.  Wherever  pebbles  are  found,  as  above,  do 
they  not  diminish  in  size,  as  we  recede  from  the  river 
or  creek  ? 

35th.  Where  auxiliary  branches  pass  through  a 
rocky  district,  and  discharge  their  waters  into  a  river 
on  the  east,  or  north  and  east  side,  are  rolled  pebbles 
found  at  their  mouths  in  greater  quantities  than  else- 

58 


410 

where  ?  If  so,  are  there  like  quantities  found  at  the 
mouths  of  auxiliary  branches,  running  through  similar 
districts,  and  discharging  themselves  on  the  west,  or 
north  west  side  of  a  river  ? 

36th.  If  a  river  has  a  southerly  course,  and  an  aux- 
iliary branch  falls  into  it  on  the  west  side,  on  which 
side  of  the  branch  are  the  alluvial  banks  the  highest  ? 
and  in  particular,  where  there  are  two  alluvial  banks. 

37th.  If  a  river  discharges  itself  into  the  sea,  how 
high  does  the  tide  of  the  latter  rise  at  that  place  ? 

38th.  At  what  rate  does  the  tide,  at  half  flood,  flow 
up  the  river,  and  to  what  extent  does  it  check  the  cur- 
rent of  the  river  ? 

39th.  If  there  are  deltas  at  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
what  are  their  lengths,  breadths,  and  heights,  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  ? 

40th.  Are  they  ever  generally  or  partially  overflown 
by  the  tides  of  the  sea,  or  freshes  of  the  rivers  ? 

41st.    What  are  the  appearances  of  their  banks  ? 

43d.  To  what  extent  have  they  been  known  to  in- 
crease, within  the  longest  known  period? 

43d.  Are  they  covered  with  forest  trees  ?  If  so,  of 
wrhat  kind  and  size  are  they,  and  how  near  do  they 
approach  the  sea? 

44th.  Are  there  any  sandy  districts  or  deserts  in  the 
vicinity  of  such  deltas  ?  If,  so,  how  are  they  situated; 
and  what  are  their  lengths,  breadths,  &c.  ? 


411 


OF  ALLUVIAL  DISTRICTS  AND  PLAINS,  WHETHER  IN- 
CLINED, ON  THE  MARGIN  OF  LAKES,  OR  ON  THE  BOR- 
DERS OF  THE  OCEAN. 

1st.  "What  their  shape  and  extent,  with  the  na- 
ture, height,  and  general  appearance  of  the  hills  or 
mountains,  by  which  they  may  be  bounded."  (London 
Geological  Society. 

2d.  "  The  degree  and  direction  of  the  inclination  or 
slope?"  (Ibid.) 

3d.  If  plains,  or  alluvial  districts,  occur  on  the  mar- 
gin of  a  lake  or  lakes,  on  which  side  are  they,  and  are 
their  corresponding  plains  or  districts  on  the  opposite 
side,  or  in  any  other  direction  on  the  borders  of  the 
lake? 

4th.  If  wells,  canals,  or  other  excavations,  have 
been  made  in  such  districts,  to  what  depth  have  they 
been  carried,  and  what  are  the  appearances  that  are 
presented  to  view  ? 

5th.  Are  fossil  trees  found  in  digging  in  such  dis- 
tricts ? 

6th.  If  so,  at  what  depth  below  the  surface  do  they 
occur,  and  are  they  found  only  at  a  certain  depth,  or 
occasionally  distributed  from  the  surface  to  the  bottom 
of  a  well,  canal,  &c.  ? 

7th.  If  trees  are  thus  found  in  the  earth,  do  they  ap- 
pear to  be  thrown  together  promiscuously ;  or  do  the 
tops  appear  to  lie  in  one  direction,  as  is  the  case  at 
Yule,  in  Yorkshire,  England  ? 


8th.  Are  organick  remains  of  animals  found  in  such 
situations  ?  If  so,  at  what  depth,  and  of  what  kind  arc 
they  ? 

9th.  Are  there  found,  beneath  the  surface,  in  such 
districts,  rolled  or  angular  masses  .of  rocks  ?  If  so,  in 
wiiat  direction,  and  at  what  distance,  does  the  same 
kind  occur  in  place  ? 

10th.  Is  it  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  such  districts 
could  have  been  formed  by  the  operations  of  any  river 
that  at  present  flows,  or  may  have  flown,  in  the  vici- 
nity of  such  districts  ?  If  so,  wliat  must  have  been  its 
course  ? 


THE  END. 


7  DAY  USE 

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